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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD 



A COURSE OF 



STUDY AND PRACTICE 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



BY 



W. F. M. GOSS, M.S., D.Eng. 

Dean of the Schools of Engineering, Purdue University 
Lafayette, Indiana 



REVISED EDITION 



GINN & COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 






ucr. 24 «yu5 

.HHwrUtill SJIXSJI 

OOP* S» 



Copyright, 1887, 1905, by 
W. F. M. GOSS 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 



m\\t atftenacum jgregg 



GINN & COMPANY 
PRIETORS • BOSTON 



TRO- 
U.S.A. 






PREFACE. 



TO avoid confusion, the subject herein treated is con- 
sidered in three divisions. Part I. contains the essen- 
tial facts concerning common bench tools for wood ; it 
describes their action, explains their adjustments, and shows 
how they may be kept in order. Part II. presents a course 
of practice by which ability to use the tools may be ac- 
quired ; and Part III. discusses such forms and adaptations 
of joints as will meet the requirements of ordinary construc- 
tion. It is not expected that the student will complete Part 

I. before entering upon Part II., or that he will finish Part 

II. before commencing Part III. He will find greater profit 
in using them together. For example, a shop exercise involv- 
ing the chisel (Part II.) should be accompanied or preceded 
by a study of the chisel (Part I.) ; again, the various forms 
of mortise-and-tenon joints (Part III.) will be better under- 
stood and more easily remembered, if considered during the 
time when types of such joints are under construction in the 
shops (Part II.). In the writer's experience with classes of 
students, one hour has been given to class-room work for every 
five hours given to shop work. By this apportionment, Parts 
I. and III. can be mastered in the class-room while Part II. 
is in progress in the shops. 

The equipment necessary for carrying out the course of 



iv 



PREFACE. 



practice given in Part II. is much less expensive than may at 
first appear. Besides a bench, a pair of trestles, and a bench- 
hook, the following-named tools are needed : — 



i 2-ft. Rule, 
i Framing-Square, 
i 7-inch Try-Square, 
i 8-inch Bevel. 
2 8-inch Marking-Gauges, 
i Chalk-Line, with Chalk, 
i Lead-Pencil, 
i Scriber. 
Firmer-Chisels, i each, ^", \", 



.// 3lf 



and i 



Gouges, i each, 



i 22-inch Cross-cutting-Saw, 
teeth. 



i 24-inch Ripping-Saw, 6 teeth. 

1 10-inch Back-Saw. 

1 8-inch Drawing- Knife. 

1 Fore-Plane. 

1 Jack-Plane. 

1 Smooth-Plane. 

1 Set Auger-Bits, J" to 1" by 

i6ths. 

1 Bit-Brace. 

1 Brad-Awl. 

1 Carpenter's Hammer. 

1 Mallet. 

1 Nail-Set. 

1 Oilstone. 



1 pair 8-inch Dividers. 

1 pair I -inch Matching- Planes. 

1 T 3 g-inch Beading-Plane. 

1 i-inch Beading-Plane. 

1 Plow. 



1 Hand-Scraper. 

\ doz. Quill Bits, assorted from |" 

down. 
I Miter-Box. 
I Grindstone. 



if provision is to be made for more than one student, the 
items printed in small type need not be duplicated. One set 
of these will suffice for any number less than thirty. 

The writer is indebted to Mr. M. Golden, of the School 
of Mechanics and Engineering, Purdue University, for the exe- 
cution of many of the drawings and for valuable suggestions. 

W. F. M. G. 

Purdue University, 

Lafayette, Ind. 

1887 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



In the preparation of this edition the text has been revised 
and a new section dealing with timber and its preparation for 
use has been added. This appears as Part IV and, in common 
with Parts I and III, is designed for use in connection with the 
course of practice outlined in Part II. Use has been made of 
Snow's " Principal Species of Wood," from which several of the 
illustrations of Part IV have been taken or adapted, and also 
of certain publications of the United States government, espe- 
cially those prepared by Professor C. S. Sargent and Dr. B. E. 
Fernow. 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION. — INTERPRETATION OF 
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. 

PAGES 

[. Mechanical Drawings Defined. — 2. Plans. — 3. Elevations. — 
4. Method of showing Parts Obscured from Sight. — 5. Sections. 
Section Lines. Cross-hatching. Incomplete Sections. — 6. Bro- 
ken Drawings. — 7. Scale. — 8. Dimensions. Dimension Lines, 1-6 



PART I. — BENCH TOOLS. 

9. Bench. — 10. Bench-Stop. — n. Vise. — 12. Bench-Hook. — 

13. Trestles 7-9 



Measuring and Lining Appliances. 

14. Early Standards of Length. — 15. English Standard Yard. — 16. 
United States Standard of Length. — 17. The Troughton Scale. 

— 18. Rules. — 19. Framing-Square. — 20. Board-measure Table. 

— 21. Brace-measure Table. — 22. Try-Square. — 23. Bevel. — 
24. "Miter-Square." — 25. Try-and-" Miter " Square. — 26. Di- 
viders. — 27. Scribing with Dividers. — 28. Combining Square 
and Rule. — 29. Combining Square and Bevel. — 30. Setting 
the Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees. — 31. Setting the Bevel at 
any Given Angle. — 32. Marking-Gauge. — ^3- Mortise-Gauge. 
-— 34. Panel-Gauge. — 35. Cutting-Gauge. — 36. Chalk-Line. 

— 37. Scriber. — 38. Pencil . 9-20 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 



39. Firmer-Chisels. — 40. Framing-Chisels. — 41. Corner-Chisels. — 
42. Gouges. — 43. Chisel Handles. — 44. Drawing-Knife. — 45. 
Action of Cutting Wedges. — 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in 
Chisel and Gouge. — 47. Grinding. — 48. Whetting , . . 20-26 

Saws. 

49. Efficiency. — 50. Form. — 51. Set. — 52. Size of Teeth. — 53. 
Ripping-Saw and Cross-Cutting-Saw Defined. — 54. Teeth of 
Ripping-Saws. — 55. Teeth of Cross-Cutting-Saws. — 56. Back- 
Saw. — 57. Compass-Saw , , 26-36 

Appliances for Filing and Setting Saws. 

58. Files. — 59. Sets for Bending the Tooth. — 60. Sets for Swedging 

the Tooth. — 61. Clamps 36-38 

Saw Filing and Setting. 
62 Top-Jointing. — 63. Setting. — 64. Filing. — 65. Side- Jointing, 39-41 

Planes and Plane-like Tools. 

66. Description of Planes. — 67. Length of Stock. — 68. Plane-Iron. 
Angle of Cutting Wedge. — 69. Outline of Cutting Edge. — 70. 
Use of Different Bench Planes. — 71. Action of Smooth- Plane 
and Fore- Plane Compared. — 72. The Cap. — 73. Narrowness of 
Mouth. — 74. Adjusting the Iron. — 75. Jointing a Plane. — 76. 
Iron Planes. — 77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined. — 78. 
Circular-Planes. — 79. Block-Planes. — 80. Spokeshaves. — 81. 
Rabbeting-Planes. — 82. Matching-Planes. — 83. Hollows and 
Rounds. — 84. Beading- Planes. — 85. Plows. — 86. Combina- 
tion Planes. — 87. Scrapers 4 I_ 5 2 

Boring Tools. 

88. Augers. — 89. Auger-Bits. — 90. Sharpening Augers and Auger- 
Bits. — 91. Center-Bits. — 92. Expansive Bits. — 93. Small Bits. 
— 94. Bit-Braces. — 95. Angular Bit-Stock. — 96. Automatic 
Boring Tool 53—59 



CONTENTS. IX 



Miscellaneous Tools. 



97. Winding-Sticks. — 98. Hand Screw-Driver. — 99. Brace Screw- 
Driver. — 100. Hammer. — 101. Hatchet. — 102. Mallet. — 
103. Sana-Paper. — 104. Wooden Miter-Box. — 105. Iron 
Miter-Box. — 106. Clamps. — 107. Grindstone. — 108. Use of 
Water on a Grindstone. — 109. Truing a Grindstone. — no. 
Truing Devices for Grindstones. — in. Oilstones. — 112. Oil 
for Oilstones. — 113. Form of Oilstones. — 114. Oilstone Slips. 
— 115. Truing an Oilstone 59-69 



PART II. — BENCH WORK. 

[16. Good Lines a Necessity. — 117. Location of Points. — 118. 

Jointed Face. — 119. Working- Face 71—73 

EXERCISE No. 1. — Measuring and Lining. 

120. Material. — 121. Spacing: Pencil and Rule. — 122. Lining: 
Pencil, and Framing-Square. — 123. Chalk- Lining. — 124. Lin- 
ing: Pencil, and Try-Square. — 125. Lining: Pencil and Bevel. 
— 126. "Gauging" Lines: Pencil and Rule. — 127. Spacing: 
Scriber and Rule. — 128. Lining: Scriber, and Try-Square. 
129. Lining: Scriber and Bevel. — 130. Gauge-Lining. — 131. 
Lining for Exercise No. 3 73—79 

EXERCISE No. 2. — Chiseling and Gouging. 

132. Chiseling by Hand. — 133. Chiseling by Use of Mallet. — 134. 

Gouging 80-83 

EXERCISE No. 3. — Sawing. 

135. Handling the Saw. — 136. Guiding the Saw. — 137. Correct- 
ing the Angle of the Cut. — 138. Rip-Sawing. — 139. Cross- 
cutting 83-86 

EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing. 

140. Handling the Plane. — 141. Why a Plane Clogs. — 142. Joint- 
ing. — 143. Planing to a Square. — 144. Method of Performing 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Similar Operations. — 145. Smooth Surfaces. — 146. Sand- 
Papering 86-91 

EXERCISE No. 5. — Box. 

147. Jointing to Width. — 148. Sawing to Length. — 149. Nailing. 
— 150. Hammer Marks. — 151. Setting Nails. — 152. With- 
drawing Nails. — 153. Fastening the Box Bottom. Finishing 
the Box. — 154. Planing End Grain 91-96 

EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook. 
155. Lining and Sawing. — 156. Using the Auger-Bit .... 96-98 

EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice. 

157. Lining. — 158. Value of Working-Face Illustrated. — 159. Cut- 
ting the Joint. — 160. Sawing a Fit. — 161. Toeing Nails . 99-102 

EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 
162. Lining. — 163. Cutting and Finishing the Joint .... 103, 104 

EXERCISE No. 9 — Simple Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 

164. Lining. — 165. Cutting the Mortise. — 166. Cutting the Tenon. 

167. Making a Pin. — 168. Drawboring 104-110 

EXERCISE No. 10. — Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 
169. Lining and Cutting. — 170. Key no, in 

EXERCISE No. ii. — Plain Dovetail. 

171. Lining and Cutting. -=- 1 72. Gluing. — 173. Short Method of 

Lining and Cutting the Joint . . . 1 1 2, 1 13 

EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap Dovetail. 
174. Lining and Cutting 114. i J 5 



CONTENTS. XI 

PAGES 

EXERCISE No. 13.— Blind Dovetail. 
175. Lining and Cutting. — 176. A Modified Form of the Joint . 115-117 

EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel. 

177. Panel Door Described. — 17S. Making the Joint between Stile 
and Rail. — 179. Cutting Chamfers. — 180. Keying the Joint. 
— 181. Finishing the Panel. Fastening Panel to Frame. — 
182. Inserting Screws. — 183. Using the Brad- Awl . . 117-121 

EXERCISE No. 15.— Frame and Panel. 

184. Making Joint between Stile and Rail. — 185. Plowing. — 186. 

Beading. — 187. Forming the Panel 121-124 



PART III. — ELEMENTS OF WOOD CON- 
STRUCTION. 

CARPENTRY. 

188. Work of Carpenter and Joiner Compared. — 189. Congres- 
sional, Tensional, and Transverse Stress Defined. — 190. Effect 
of Transverse Stress. Neutral Axis. Relation between the 
Depth of a Timber and its Resistance to Transverse Stress. 
— 191. Rankine's Principles concerning Joints and Fasten- 
ings 125-128 

Joints Connecting Timbers in the Direction of their Length. 

192. Lapped Joint. — 193. Fished Joint. — 194. Scarfed Joints. — 
195. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Compression. — 196. Scarfed 
Joint for Resisting Tension. — 197. Scarfed Joint for Resisting 
Transverse Stresses. — 198. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Ten- ^ 
sion and Compression. — 199. Scarfed Joint for Resisting 
Tension and Transverse Stress 1 28-1 31 



Xll CONTENTS. 



Joints Connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 

200. Halving. — 201. Notching. — 202. Cogging. — 203. Mortise- 
and-Tenon Joints. — 204. Mortise and Tenon Joining a Vertical 
to a Horizontal Timber. — 205. Mortise and Tenon Joining 
a Horizontal to a Vertical Timber. — 206. Mortise and Tenon 
Joining One Horizontal Timber to Another. Tusk Tenon 131-135 



Miscellaneous Joints. 

207. Oblique Mortise and Tenon. — 208. Bridle Joint. — 209. Tie 

Joint. — 210. Chase Mortise , . 135-137 



JOINERY. 

211. Joinery Described 137 

Beads and Moldings. 

212. Beads. — 213. Use of Beads. — 214. Chamfer. — 215. Stop 
Chamfer. — 216. Moldings Described. — 217. Round Nose. — 
218. Some Typical Forms of Moldings. Fillet. — 219. Joints 

in Joinery Defined 138-140 



Heading-Joints, or Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of 
their Length. 

220. Square Heading- Joint. Splayed Heading- Joint 141 



Joints Uniting Pieces in Direction of their Width. 

221. Their Office. — 222. Butt Joint. Filleted Joint. Rabbeted 
Joint. Matched Joint. — 223. Glued Butt Joint. — 224. Cleat- 
ing. — 225. Side Cleats. — 226. End Cleats. — 227. Relieving 
Cleats from Strain 141-144 



CONTENTS. Xlll 



Joints Uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 

228. Butt Joint. — 229. Miter Joint. — 230. Strengthening of Miter 
Joints. — 231. Dovetail Joints. — 232. Proportions of Mortise- 
and-Tenon Joints. — 233. Single and Double Tenons. — 234. 
Haunching. — 235. Four Tenons. — 236. Mortises and Tenons 
at an Angle in the Work. — 237. Modifications of Mortise-and- 
Tenon Joints 144-148 

Paneling. 

238. Panel. — 239. Frame. — 240. Joints between Panel and 

Frame 148-151 

FASTENINGS. 

241. Pins. — 242. Wedges. — 243. Blind-Wedging. — 244. Keys. — 
245. Dowels. — 246. Nails. — 247. Size of Nails. — 248. Brads. 
— 249. Tacks. — 250. Screws. — 251. Glue 151-157 



PART IV.— TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION 
FOR USE. 

Timber. 

252. Timber. — 253. Structure of Wood. — 254. Markings of 

Wood. — 255. Adaptability of Various Woods . . . 158-166 

Characteristics of Typical Timber-Yielding Trees. 

256. Classification of Trees. — 257. Exogens. — 258. Effect of En- 
vironment. — 259. Broad-Leaved Woods. — 260. Oak. — 261. 
White Oak. — 262. Red Oak.— 263. Maple. — 264. Sugar 
Maple. — 265. Silver or White Maple. — 266. Black Walnut. 
— 267. Yellow Poplar. — 268. Beech. — 269. Ash. — 270. White 
Ash. — 271. Needle-Leaved Woods. — 272. Pine. — 273. White 



XIV CONTENTS. 



Pine. — 274. Long-Leaved Pine. — 275. Short-Leaved Pine. 

— 276. Loblolly Pine. — 277. Bull Pine. — 278. The Spruces. 

— 279. Black Spruce. — 280. White Spruce. — 281. Hemlock. 

— 282. Eastern Hemlock. — 283. Western Hemlock. — 284. 
Bald Cypress. — 285. The Common Redwood. — 286. The 
Big-Tree Variety of Redwood 166-182 

Logging. 

287. Felling Timber. — 288. Transportation of Logs. — 289. Saw- 
mills. — 290. Process of Sawing. — 291. Milling. — 292. Wa- 
ter in Timber. — 293. Process of Seasoning. — 294. Air 
Seasoning. — 295. Steam Drying. — 296. Water Seasoning. 

— 297. Kiln Drying. — 298. Kilns. — 299. Shrinkage. — 300. 
Swelling. — 301. Warping. — 302. Decay in Wood. — 303. 
Timber Preservation. — 304. Creosoting 182-198 

- Strength of Timber. 

305. Strength of Timber. — 306. Strength in Tension. — 307. 
Strength in Compression. — 308. Strength in Shear. — 309. 
Strength under Transverse Loads 198-200 



INTRODUCTION. 



D^C 



INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. 

I. Most of the illustrations presented with the following 
chapters are in the form of Mechanical Drawings. To the 
novice, these may appear confusing ; but careful attention to 



Fig. 1 




some of the principles underlying their con- 
struction will enable him readily to interpret 
their meaning. 

A mechanical drawing, as distinguished from 
a perspective drawing, or picture, instead of 
giving all the characteristics of an object at a 
glance, presents them in detail, giving in one 
view one set of elements, in another view another set of 
elements, and so on, until the form of the ob- 
ject is accurately defined. 

For example, Fig. i is a perspective view 
of an object which is represented mechanically 
by Fig. 2. By Fig. i it will at once be seen 
that the object represented is a cylinder. In 
Fig. 2 there is first presented a plan, showing 
that the object is cylindrical; and, secondly, 
an elevation, showing the height of the cylinder. 
From the combination of these two views, the 
solid may be as easily imagined as from Fig. i, 
and the knowledge obtained of it is much more 
definite. 

A perspective view of an object is that which 
is had by looking from some one point, as A, Fig. 3, while a 
view represented by a mechanical drawing supposes the ob- 




ELEVATION. 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



server to be looking from an infinite number of points, and 
always in parallel lines, as indicated by A, Fig. 4. 

2. A Plan of any object Fig. 3 

represents it as it would 
appear if, standing on its 
natural base, it were looked 
down upon vertically, as 
indicated by the arrows A, 
Fig. 5. If the object, as a rectangular block, has no fixed 
base, any one of its faces may be taken as such. 



Fig. 5 





*J' v v I'- i, 




3. An Elevation of any object represents it as it would 
appear if, standing on its natural base, it were looked upon in a 
horizontal direction, as indicated by 
arrows B, Fig. 5. 

The elevation is always at right 
angles to the pta?i. There may be 
several elevations of the same object, 
each differing from the others as the 
point of observation changes. For 
example, the plan and elevation of the object rep- 
resented by Fig. 6, are usually made as shown by 
Fig. 7, but they may be made as shown by Fig. 8 or 
Fig. 9. 



Fig. 


3 






B 


A 


III,, 


" J 



ELEVATION, 

FACE B. 



INTRODUCTION. 




Fiy;. 9 



These angular views, indeed, cannot be avoided when the form 
they represent is so complicated that its faces are neither par- 
allel, nor at right angles to each 
other. Fig. 10 is a perspective 
view of an object which is repre- 
sented mechanically by Fig. n. 
It is evident that if one face of A 
is shown in the elevation, two 
faces of B will appear ; if one 
face of B is shown, two of A will 
appear. 

In the representation of simple 
objects, the plan is in some cases 
omitted, and two elevations em- 
ployed. These may be designated as side elevation and end 



j \ PLAN. 


\ 


FACE B.^ 


.X^FACE A. 
1 
1 




FACE A. 


J 


VAT(ON. 


FACE B. 



elevation of a side and an 
end. For „. 



f\ 




elevation, which terms signify an 

elevation of an 

example, if we consider the 

surface A the base of Fig. 6, 

a side elevation would be 
jg, equivalent to the elevation 

Fig. 7, and the end elevation 

would become equivalent to 
the plan of the same figure. 

4. Method of showing Parts obscured from 
Sight. — The outline of details, which in any 
view of an object are hidden, is frequently 
shown by dotted lines. Thus, in Fig. 12, the 
general outline of the plan and elevation shows a rectangular 
block ; if the circle in the plan is associated with the dotted 
lines in the elevation, it is not difficult to imagine a round hole 
extending through the center of the block. If the hole pene- 
trates to only half the depth of the block, dotted lines will be 
placed as shown by Fig. 13; if the hole is larger at the top 




4 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



than at the bottom, the drawing will appear as shown by Fig. 14 ; 
if smaller at the top, as shown by Fig. 15. In Fig. 16 dotted 



Fig. 12 




Fig. 13 




Fig. 14 




Fig. IS 


O 

PLAN. 




O 

PLAN. 




© 

PLAN. 


A— 


PLAN 



EL 


1 
IVATlffliN, 




ELEVATION. 




eleVat/on. 




l 1 

ELEVATION. 



lines indicate the diameter of a bolt holding the two pieces A 
and B together. 

5. Sections. — In complicated drawings, the use of dotted 
lines to indicate hidden parts is more confusing than helpful. 
In such cases it is customary to imagine the 
object cut, as if it were sawed asunder, and 
. the surface thus produced exposed. Such 
a surface is called a " section." 

Complete sections show not only the sur- 
face produced by the cut, but the outline of other portions of 



Fig. 16 



Fig. 17 



the object which may be seen beyond. See lines a, a, Fig. 

Thus, section AB, Fig. 1 7, is that which 
would appear if the ring were to be cut on 
the line AB (Plan, Fig. 17), and the cut 
surface made to appear in elevation. 

Section lines on a drawing show the loca- 
tion of sections. They are usually made in 
color (red or blue), or in dotted black, with 
a colored line on each side. Each section 
is designated by the letters of its section line. 



17- 




QZZD 

Sec. A B. 



INTRODUCTION. 



5 



Cross-hatching is a term applied to the uniformly spaced 
parallel lines which are employed to indicate the cut surface 
of a section. See Fig. 18. 

Different pieces of material appearing in the 
same section are cross-hatched at different 
angles, as in Fig. 19, which represents a cross- 
section of a lead-pencil ; and different kinds of 
material are frequently indicated by cross-hatch- 
ing in different colors. 

Incomplete sections show only the cut surface, to the 

exclusion of all other portions of the object. It is 

common to place such sections on the section, lines, 

and omit the letters. See Fig. 20. 

A single view of a symmetrical object may be made partly 

in section, and partly in elevation, as in the drawing of the 

goblet, Fig. 2i. 



"Fig. 


IS 


[[ 


4 


/ 


W 







SECTION A B, 



Fig. IO 



6. Broken Drawings. — To economize 
space in representations of simple objects, a 
portion of the drawing 
is sometimes omitted. 
In such cases, that which 
is given indicates the 
character of the omitted 
portion, and the dimen- 
sion figures show its ex- 
tent. An example is 
given in Fig. 22. 



Kig. 21 





ELEVATION.i SECTION 



7. Scale. — Drawings are made either " full-sized " or "to 
scale." A full-sized drawing is one in which every dimension 
agrees exactly with the similar dimension of the object it repre- 
sents. A drawing to scale is one in which every dimension 
bears the same fractional relation to the similar dimension of 
the object it represents. When a drawing is -£-$\ the size of 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the object, it is said to be on a scale of ^ inch to the foot, or, 
as frequently written, i in, = i ft. ; if -J-th the size, as 2 in. = i ft., 
and so on. The scale 6 in. = 1 ft. is often expressed as "half 



size. 



8. Dimensions. — The various dimensions of an object repre- 
sented are shown on the drawing by appropriate figures, which 
express feet when followed by ', and inches 
when followed by ". Thus 2' should be read 




as two feet, and 2" as two inches. 



12' 7 1" 



the same as twelve feet and seven and three- 
quarters inches. 

The figures always show the dimensions of the thing repre- 
sented ; they do not agree with the dimensions of the drawing 
except when the latter is full-sized. See dimension figures in 
Fig. 23. 




Dimension lines. — Dimension figures are always placed on, or 
near, lines along which they apply. In drawings these lines are 
usually in color (red), but may be dotted black, as in Fig. 23. 
When convenient, they are placed within the outline of the 
drawing ; but if the drawing is small or crowded, they are placed 
at one side, and are connected with the parts they limit by per- 
pendicular, colored or dotted lines. Two arrow-heads, one on 
each side of the dimension figure, locate the points between 
which it applies. Several dimensions may be given on the same 
line, each being limited by its own arrow-heads. 



PART I 



>^< 



BENCH TOOLS. 

g. Bench. — A simple form of bench is shown by Fig. 24. 
Its length A may vary from 6' upwards, according to the length 
of work to be done. Its height B should also be regulated by 
the character of the work — high for light work, and low for 
heavy — as well as by the height of the person who is to use it. 
Carpenters' benches are usually about 33" high, while those of 
cabinet and pattern makers are from 2" to 4" higher. 



Fig:. S4 



1 1 



"■-■- " '■" ~~ ""- - - FT 



'Mk 



Scale, \i ,= 1 



END ELEVATION. 



i ■ - , ;.— : . 


t^^~jX- ~~ -— ---g-^ ---■~.^--*--— -- ■^■_- -^ .^.—-^\ 


18 


1 ^lf ' i-' >- ~<^><: -•: 




iff 






< 


^4 




^ 



SIDE ELEVATION, 



The surface of the bench, particularly of the thick plank that 
forms the outer edge of it, should be perfectly flat — a true 
plane. When in use, care must be taken to protect it from 
injury. It should never be scarred by the chisel or cut by the 
saw. If oiled and shellaced, it is likely to be better kept. 

10. The Bench-Stop a is intended to hold the work while 
it is being planed. It may be simply a piece of wood about 
2" x 2", projecting through a mortise in the top of the bench ; 



8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fij 




/Fig. 26 



but it is far better to have some form of iron fitting, many of 
which are supplied by the trade. The char- 
acteristics of all of them are well illustrated 
by the one shown in Fig. 25. The frame 
A is let into the bench even with its sur- 
face. The hook C is held in position at 
any height above the bench by the action 
of the screw B. C may be fastened even 
with the surface of the bench, or removed 
entirely. 
11. The Vise d, Fig. 24, is of a form that, for general pur- 
poses, has long been in use. To hold the work well, the jaw d 
should be as nearly as possible parallel to the face g, against 
which it acts. If it is not parallel, the space between should 

be less at the top than at the bot- 
tom — an arrangement which in- 
sures a much better grip upon the 
work than the opposite conditions. 
Adjustments for parallelism are 
made by changing the pin c from 
one hole to another. Iron vises 
can now be had which are adapted 
to the same uses with the one just 
described ; they can be quickly adjusted, they are so designed 
that the clamping faces always maintain their parallelism, and 
being stiff er than wooden vises, they can be depended upon to 
hold work more securely. 

An iron bench vise, such as is shown by Fig. 26, is extremely 
useful for small work, and, if expense is not to be considered, 
should -supplement the vise d, in which case it may be located 
on the bench at H. 

The holes, e, in the bench are for the reception of a plug, 
which may be used to support one end of a long piece of work 
while the other end is held by the vise. 




BENCH TOOLS. 



12. A Bench-Hook, Fig. 178, applied to the bench as 
shown by Fig. 167, provides a stop to prevent work from 
sliding across the bench. The flat faces which rest on the 
bench and receive the work, should be true planes and par- 
allel. A length of from 14" to 16" is convenient, though 
bench-workers frequently have several of different lengths. 

13. Trestles, or " horses," are used in various ways to sup- 
port material, and also Fi Qr 

to take the place of the f—~ 
bench when large pieces 
of material are to be 
operated upon. A con- 
venient form is shown 
by Fig. 27. 




Measuring and Lining Appliances. 

14. Early Standards of Length. — To meet the earliest 
need of units of measure, it was natural to adopt the means 
nearest at hand, and common consent, no doubt, brought into 
use the pace, the forearm, or cubit, the foot, the hand, the nail, 
etc. These were certainly convenient enough, for wherever he 
might go, every individual carried his units of measure with him. 
Variations in their length, however, were inevitable, and many 
attempts were made to reduce them to a standard. An old 
English statute, the substance of which has descended to 
American arithmetics of modern date, enacts " that three 
barleycorns, round and dry, make an inch, twelve inches make 
a foot, three feet a yard, etc. ; and there seems to be no doubt 
that this mode of obtaining a standard was actually resorted to. 
But setting aside the objection due to the varying size of the 
individual grains, — unless the average of a large number be 
taken, — it is so difficult to know how much of the sharp end 
of a grain of barley must be removed to make it ' round,' that 



IO BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the definition is not of much value. Nevertheless, in spite 
of numerous attempts at legislation on the subject, this, down 
to the year 1824, was the only process by which the standard 
yard of this country [England] could, if lost, be legally re- 
covered." * 

Previous to the institution of a national standard of length 
in Great Britain, influential men and prominent societies pro- 
vided themselves with so-called standards, which were accepted 
and used in different localities. By comparison with many of 
these, the present standard of length was made, and its length 
defined by law as the British standard yard. From this, about 
fifty copies have been made. Two of these copies were in 1855 
sent to the United States, and have since been in the keeping 
of the Coast Survey. They are described as follows : — 

15. " Each standard of length is a solid bar 38 inches long 
and 1 inch square, in transverse section. One inch from each 
extremity a cylindrical well, one-half inch in diameter, is sunk 
one-half inch below the surface. At the bottom of the wells, 
in each bar, is a gold pin about 0.1 inch in diameter, upon 
which are drawn three transversal and two longitudinal lines. 
The wells are protected by metal caps. The length of one 
English yard at a specified temperature is defined by the dis- 
tance from the middle transversal line in one well to the middle 
transversal line in the other, using the parts of those lines which 
are midway between the longitudinal lines." 2 

16. The United States Standard of Length. — " The stand- 
ard yard of Great Britain was lawful in the colonies before 
1776. By the Constitution of the United States the Congress 
is charged with fixing the standard of weights and measures, 
but no such enactment has ever been made by Congress, and 

1 Shelley's " Workshop Appliances." 

2 Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 



BENCH TOOLS. II 

therefore that yard which was standard in England previous to 
1776 remains the standard yard of the United States to this 
day." * 

17. "The Troughton Scale is a bronze bar with an inlaid 
silver scale, made for the survey of the coast of the United 
States by Troughton, of London. The bar is nearly 86 inches 
long, 2\ inches wide, and one- half inch thick. A thin strip of 
silver, a little more than 0.1 inch wide, is inlaid with its surface 
flush with the brass, midway the width of the bar. It extends 
the whole length of the bar, save where it is interrupted by two 
perforations, one near each end. Two parallel lines about 0.1 
inch apart are ruled longitudinally on the silver. The space 
between them is divided transversely into tenths of inches. 

"The zero mark of the graduations is about 3.2 inches from 
one end of the bar. Immediately over it is engraved an eagle, 
surmounted by the motto, E Pluribus Unum, and thirteen 
stars. Below the 38 to 42-inch divisions is engraved ' Troughton, 
London, 1814.' The bar is also perforated by a hole above 
the scale and near the 40-inch division, and by one below it, 
between the words ' Troughton ' and ' London.' . . . 

"The yard of 36 inches, comprised between the 27th and 
63d inch of the Troughton scale, which was found by Hassler's 
comparison to be equal to the average 36 inches of the scale, is 
the actual standard yard of the United States, having been 
adopted by the Treasury Department as such in 1832, on the 
recommendation of Mr. Hassler. 2 " 1 

18. Rules are measuring strips, and are ^^ Fis ' ss 
usually made of boxwood. Their size is 
expressed by their length in inches or feet, 
as a " 6-inch rule," a " 2-foot rule." — V 

For convenience, they are made to fold, 

1 Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 

2 Hassler was the first superintendent of the United States Coast Survey. 



■ ■; ; ■ ,♦ 



12 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

and one is said to be " two- fold " when made of two pieces, 
" four-fold" when made of four, and "six-fold" when made of 
six pieces. Fig. 28 shows a four-fold rule. 

To preserve the rule from wear, the better class are " bound" 
by a strip of brass which covers each edge ; others are " half- 
bound," hav- 
ing only one 



7 lir"l l 0'' !, l9 , "l8 |, l7 U l6 ,|, l5l , U ,|l U"l2''l 1 '^ 



J.9J 33 »£I 



T . i . f . i i Y . i . T i i . i'.nnhf. i .rM.i'iii^iiniii'ii.i 1 . !, 



edge covered; 

and still others m g . sq 

are "unbound," having no edge protection. 

Carpenters' rules are usually graduated to eighths 
of inches on one side, and to sixteenths on the other. 
Besides the regular graduations, other numbers are 
frequently represented ; but their purpose is so varied 
that their interpretation cannot be given here. 

19. The Framing-Square, Fig. 29, as its name 
implies, is intended primarily for use in framing, and 
would seem to belong to the builder rather than to 
the bench- worker ; but its range of usefulness makes 
it valuable to any worker in wood. 

All but the very cheapest are of steel, and many are 
nickel-plated. The nickel prevents rust, and gives 
clearness to the lines and figures. The figures of the 
graduations along the several edges, begin at the angle 
and extend to the ends of the legs. In addition to 
these, there is on one side a line of figures beginning 
at the end of the long leg and extending to the angle. 
On the reverse side, represented by Fig. 29, there is 
on the long leg a board-measure table, and on the 
short leg a brace-measure table. 

20. The Board-measure Table. — Lumber is sold by the 
square foot, and the value of the table lies in its giving the area 
of a board, or of any surface, in square feet, when its length in 
feet and its breadth in inches are known. 



BENCH TOOLS. 1 3 

The figures that belong to the outside graduations, 1, 2, 3, 
and so on up to 24, are employed to represent the width of the 
board to be measured, and all the lengths included in the table 
are given in a column under the figure 1 2 belonging to the out- 
side graduations. On this square, Fig. 29, they are 14, 10, 
and 8. To find the surface of any boara, first look in the 
column under 12 for a number representing its length, and 
having found it, run the finger along in the same line until it 
comes under that figure of the outside graduations that corre- 
sponds to the board's width. The figure nearest the finger in 
this line represents the area of the board in feet. 

Exci7nple 1 . — How many square feet are there in a board 
10' long and 7" wide? 

Under 12 of the outside graduations, in Fig. 29, the 10 is 
in the second line, and the figure in this line most nearly 
under 7 of the outside graduations, is 6, which represents the 
area required, in feet. 

Example 2. — What is the surface of a board whose length 
is 8' and whose width is 21"? 

As in Example 1, look under 12 of the outside graduations 
for 8 ; in this line, under 2 1 of the outside graduations, will be 
found the 14 which represents the area required. 

The reason that the column under 12, forming, as it does, 
a part of the body of the table, is taken to represent the length, 
will be clear when it is remembered that any board 12" wide 
will contain as many surface feet as it contains linear feet ; that 
is, a board 12" wide and 14' long will have an area of 14 square 
feet. The figures given under 12 correspond to the usual 
length to which lumber is cut, and on most squares they are 
8, 10, 14, 16, and 18; and, since the figure representing the 
area differs from the figure representing the length only be- 
cause the width varies, we must go to the right or the left 
of the column under 12, when the width is greater or less 
than 12. 



14 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. 30 






/ \h 


/v 


| 


/ / 


\ 


c B 


a 



21. The Brace-measure Table gives the length of each side 
of several right-angled triangles. A brace in carpentry is a 

timber inserted diagonally between two other 
timbers which usually are at right angles to 
each other. If it is required to insert a brace 
C between A and B, Fig. 30, its length may 
be determined by using the table on the 
framing- square, which, within certain limits, 
gives the carpenter the length of C when the 
lengths A and B are known. 

Taking the group of figures nearest the end of the short 
leg for the illustration, suppose A (length ad)=^j" and B 
(length ae) = 57", then C (length be) — 80.61". By the next 
group, it will be seen that if A and B each equal 54" or 54', 
C will equal 76.31", or 76.31'. The two figures representing 
the length of the two short sides of the triangle, are always given 
one above the other, and the figure representing the length of 
the third side, to the right of the other two. 

22. A Try-Square is shown by Fig. 31. The beam A in 
this case is of wood, faced by a brass strip C to protect it from 

wear. The blade B, at right angles 
to the beam, is of steel. The gradua- 
tions on the blade, together with its 
thinness, make this square more con- 
venient for short measurements than 
the rule. 

Try- squares 

are made from 4" to 12", their size 

being expressed by the length of the <J" ® 

blade. 

23. The Bevel, often improperly 
called "bevel-square," is made up of 
parts similar to those of the try-square, 



Fig. 31 




Fig. 33 




BENCH TOOLS. 



15 



as will be seen by Fig. 32. The blade is adjustable to any 
angle with the beam ; the thumb-screw C fastens it when 
set. 

The size of a bevel is expressed by the length of its beam in 
inches. 



24. "Miter-Squares" derive their 
name from the purpose they are in- 
tended to serve. A "miter" in con- 
struction is one-half of a right angle, 
or an angle of 45 degrees. In the 
" miter-square " the blade, as in the 
try-square, is permanently set, but 
at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown 
by Fig. 33. 

The bevel, while neither so con- 
venient nor so accurate, is often 
made to answer the purpose of the 




miter-square.' 



. 34 



25. A Combination Try-and-" Miter " 
Square is shown by Fig. 34. This, while 

perfect as a try- 
square, is trans- 
formed into a "mi- 
ter-square " when 
the face of the 
beam AB is placed 
against the work- 
ing-face (119) of the material. 

26. Dividers are much used in spacing 
and in laying off circles and arcs of circles. 
The form shown by Fig. 35 is known as "arc and set-screw 
dividers." The two points are held at any desired distance 
from each other by the action of the set-screw A upon the 
arc B. In setting, the final adjustment may be made more 





16 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



delicate by use of the thumb-nut C, which, acting in opposi- 
tion to the spring D, shortens the arc B or allows the spring to 
lengthen it, as may be required. 



Fig. 36 




F 



27 . Scribing with Dividers : Example 1 . — The four legs 
of a table are of unequal length, and prevent it from standing 
even. Scribe the legs to length. 

First, by means of blocks or wedges under the shorter legs, 
make the top of the table to stand parallel to some plane sur- 
face, as a bench top, or even the floor if 
it is in good condition, either of which 
may be designated as F> Fig. 36. Set 
the dividers equal to or greater than the 
height of the thickest blocking, so that 
while one point, a, touches the leg, the 
other, b, will rest upon F in the same vertical line. Move the 
dividers, keeping b on F, and producing by a a line on the leg, as 
ea, which, if the dividers are properly handled, will be parallel 
to the surface F. Without changing the dividers, mark at least 
two adjoining faces on each leg, and cut the legs to line. 

It is evident that lines thus scribed will all be at an equal 
distance from the surface F; and the table top, having been 

made parallel to F, it 
follows that the lines 
scribed are parallel to 
the top, or that the 
length of the four legs, 
as defined by the lines, 
is the same. 

Example 2. — It is required to fit the end of a board B to 
the outline abed ot A, Fig. 37. Place the board in the position 
shown, and set the dividers at a distance equal to x. With 
one point at a. and the other at e, let them be moved together, 
one following the outline abed which the other produces on B, 




BENCH TOOLS. 



17 



as shown. Cut to line, and the board will fit. When sharp 
angles, as at /, enter into the outline, greater accuracy will 
be attained if the point / is located by measuring from the 
base line hi. 




28. Combining Measuring Appliances. — To find the hypot- 
enuse of a right-angled triangle when the other two sides are 
known, use the rule and framing- 
square, as shown by Fig. 38. 
Suppose in Fig. 30 the length 
ab = 5^", and the length ae 
— 92"" > to f 1 * 1 ^ the length be, 
apply one end of the rule to 
the 9^-" mark on one leg of the 
square, and bring its edge to J u 0l 
coincide with the 5-A-" mark on J " bJ ^ 
the other leg, as shown by Fig. 38. The reading of the rule 
where it coincides with the 5-J-" mark, or io|", will be the length 
be. The length thus found will be sufficiently accurate for 
many purposes. If the distance to be measured is in feet, 
imagine every inch on the square to be equal to a foot, and 
read the result in feet. 

If the proportions of the triangle are very large, the figure 
may be drawn at full size on the shop floor, and the extent of 
each part determined by direct measurement. 



29. Setting the Bevel. — To 
set the bevel at a miter (an angle 
of 45 ), place the beam against 
one leg of the square and adjust 
the blade so that it will agree with 
equal distances on both legs, as 
4" and 4", Fig. 39. Any distance may be taken, but it must be 
the same on both legs. 




i8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



The carpenter frequently describes an angle to which the bevel 
may be set as " i in 2 " or " 1 in 4," by which is meant that 
while the beam is applied, as shown by Fig. 39, the blade corre- 
sponds to the 1" mark on one leg, and the 2" mark on the other ; 
or to the 1" mark on one leg, and the 4" mark on the other. 

30. To set the Bevel at an Angle of 60, and of 120 De- 
grees. — In Fig. 40 the board A has a jointed edge a ; at any 

distance from a, gauge a 
line be. From any point 
on be, with any radius, 
use the dividers to strike 




the arc be, with same 
radius, strike from b the 
arc/. Place the beam 
of the bevel against face 
a, move blade till it co- 
incides with the points b and/, and the bevel is set at an angle of 
60 degrees with one side of beam, and 1 20 degrees with the other. 
60 degrees is the measure of the angle between any two faces of 
an equilateral triangle, and 120 degrees, of the angle between 
any two feces of a regular hexagon ; for these reasons, the bevel 
set at these angles is often of use in construction. 

31. To set the Bevel at any given Angle. — If an attempt 
j,,. 41 is made to set the bevel di- 

rectly from lines on paper, it 
will be found difficult to de- 
termine when the tool agrees 
with the drawing. It is better 
to transfer such an angle to a 
board, from the working-edge 
of which the bevel may be 
set. Thus, if it is required 
to set the bevel at the angle 
abc, Fig. 41, a board, as A, 
should be lined as follows : 
from the working-edge gauge the line a'b' ; with the dividers, 







\ 




BENCH TOOLS. I9 

at any convenient radius, describe from b' the arc e'a* ; with the 
same radius describe from b the arc ed ; set the dividers so that 
with one point on e the other will fall on/, and lay off this dis- 
tance on e'd', locating/'; connect // and/'; the angle a'b'c' 
will be equal to abc. As a'b' is by construction parallel to the 
working-edge of the board, the angle between the working- 
edge and b'c' is equal to the angle abc. If, then, with the beam 
of the bevel on the working-edge, the blade is made to coin- 
cide with b'c', the bevel will be set at the angle abc. 

32. Marking-Gauges. — Fig. 42 shows the usual form of a 
marking-gauge. The steel point, or "spur," e, should be filed 
to a narrow edge, so that it 
will make a sharp line. H® 







;•■■ l - <#%al^r. 



c 

{Enlarged) 



The graduations along the g" ( 
length of the beam B, are 
not to be depended on un- 
less it is known that the 
zero line is exactly opposite 
the spur. When the zero mark and the spur do not agree, as 
is frequently the case, it is necessary in setting the gauge to 
measure from the head A to the spur e. A when set, is pre- 
vented from moving on B, by the screw C. 

33. A Mortise-Gauge, shown by Fig. 43, has two spurs, a 
being fastened to the beam, and b to a brass slide which works 
in a groove in the beam. The 

spur b may be set at any dis- v , ;ll , K7r — v x "' "* ' * 

tance from a by the action of 
the screw c. The gauge may, 
therefore, be set to line both 
sides of a mortise at the same time. 

34. Panel-Gauges, Fig. 44, are for use in making lines at a 
considerable distance from the working-edge. 



20 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

The length of the head A is sufficiently increased to receive 
good support from the working-edge, which guides it. 




35. Cutting-Gauges, having a long, thin blade in the place 
of the usual spur, are in form similar to that shown by Fig. 42. 
They are useful in cutting strips of thin material. 

36. Chalk-Lines are very seldom used in bench work, but 
are often convenient in applying such work to larger structures. 
The cord used in lining should be as small as is consistent with 
strength. On most surfaces blue chalk is more easily seen than 
white. 

37. The Scriber, as known to the trade, takes a variety of 
forms, from that of an awl to that of a peculiar short-bladed 
knife. A well-kept pocket knife of convenient size will be 
found a good substitute for any of them. 

38. The Pencil used in lining on board surfaces should be 
soft, and kept well-pointed by frequent sharpening. 

Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 

39. Firmer-Chisels have blades wholly of steel. They are 
fitted with light handles and are intended for hand use only. 

Fia. 45 



40. Framing-Chisels have heavy iron blades overlaid with 
steel. The handles are stout and are protected at the end by 
ferrules. This chisel is used in heavy mortising and framing, 
and is driven to its work by the mallet. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



21 



Compare Fig. 45, which shows a firmer-chisel, with Fig. 46, 
which shows a framing-chisel. 

Fix. 46 



The size of chisels is indicated by the width of the cutting 
edge, and varies from £" to 1" by sixteenths, and from i£" to 
2" by fourths. 

41. A Corner-Chisel is shown by Fig. 47. Its two cutting 
edges are at right angles to each other, and this form renders 




> 



it useful in making inside angles, as, for example, the corners of 
a mortise. Its handle is like that of a framing-chisel. The size 
of a corner-chisel is indicated by the length of one cutting edge. 

42. Gouges have blades that, throughout their length, are 
curved in section, as shown by Fig. 48. When the bevel forming 

ITi s . 4S 




the cutting edge is on the concave side, they are called "inside 
gouges " ; when on the convex side, " outside gouges." For 
general purposes the outside gouge is most convenient, and the 
carpenter, with his limited facilities for the care of tools, can 
more easily keep it in order. The size of a gouge is indicated 
by the length of a straight line extending from one extremity of 
the cutting edge to the other. 



22 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



43. Handles for chisels, gouges, and similar tools, are of two 
general classes, light and heavy ; the former are intended prin- 
cipally for hand use, and are shown in connection with the firmer- 
chisel and gouge ; the latter, which are re-enforced at the end 
by a ferrule that they may withstand blows from the mallet, are 
illustrated in connection with the framing- chisel and the corner- 
chisel. 

Handles may be shank-fitted, like the one shown by Fig. 48, 
or socket-fitted, as shown by Fig. 47. The better class of tools 
have socket-fitted handles. 

44. The Drawing-Knife, shown by Fig. 49, is in reality a 
wide chisel, though it is quite different from a chisel in form. 




The handles are so attached as to stand in advance of the cut- 
ting edge, which is drawn into the work, instead of being pushed 
into it, as is the case with a chisel. The drawing-knife is very 
effective on narrow surfaces that are to be considerably reduced. 
The size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. 

45. The Action of Cutting Wedges. — Every cutting tool 
is a wedge more or less acute. In action it has two operations 
to perform : first, cutting the fibers of the wood ; and, secondly, 
widening the cut in order that the tool may penetrate into the 
material, and thus allow the cutting edge to go on with its 
work. To widen the cut, the fibers of the wood must be pressed 
apart (the wood split), or the fiber ends crushed, or the mate- 
rial on one side of the wedge must be bent, thus forming a 



BENCH TOOLS. 23 

shaving. It is evident that a unit of force tending to drive the 
edge forward will, under like conditions of material, always 
result in the same amount of incision. But much less force is 
required to carry the tool forward when the cutting edge is just 
entering the material, than when it has advanced to a consider- 
able depth, and, hence, it is fair to assume that this difference is 
due solely to the resistance that the material offers in opening 
to make way for the tool, this resistance increasing as the tool 
goes deeper. The resistance offered to a tool by a bending 
shaving, therefore, may be many times greater than that offered 
to the cutting edge by the wood fibers. 

An obtuse-angled wedge will cut as easily as a more acute- 
angled one, but the more obtuse the angle is, the more abrupt 
must be the turning of the shaving ; and since the latter factor 
is the more important, as regards the absorption of force, it 
follows that the more acute the cutting edge is, the more easily 
it will accomplish its work. 

46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in Chisel and Gouge.— The 

acuteness of the angle cannot be defined in degrees since, 
being limited only by the strength of the steel, it must vary as 
the duty required of it varies. For example, a more acute 
angle may be used in soft than in hard wood ; again, a chisel 
handled as shown by Figs. 147 and 148, is not so severely 
strained as when used in the manner illustrated by Fig. 149. 
If the maximum degree of delicacy were insisted on under 
every condition of use, the cutting edge would need to vary 
with every turn of the chisel, and almost with every shaving it 
cuts. This would be impracticable, and wood workers reduce 
all these requirements to a single principle which may be 
expressed as follows : let the cutting edge be as acute as the 
metal will allow without breaking, when fairly used. A little 
experience with a given tool is the readiest means of finding 
the angle suited to a given class of work. Carriage makers, 



24 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

who work almost wholly in hard woods, are in the habit of 
using what pattern makers, who work principally in soft woods, 
would style blunt chisels. 

47. Grinding. — A new chisel, or one that has become con- 
siderably dull, must be ground. With the handle of the chisel 

Fig. SO 




in the right hand, and the fingers of the left hand resting on 
the blade near its cutting edge, apply the chisel to the stone, 
Fig. 50, as shown by the dotted outline a, and then raise the 
right hand until the proper angle is reached, a position indi- 
cated by the full outline b. See that there is a good supply of 
water, and, as the grinding progresses, move the tool gradually 
from one side of the stone to the other. 

Assuming that the stone is in fairly good order, the tool 
should be applied relative to its motion, in the manner shown 
by a and b, Fig. 50, the motion being in the direction of the 
arrow d. If the stone is not round or does not run true, there 
is danger that the cutting edge may dig into it, to the injury of 
both stone and tool. Under such conditions, it will be best for 
the operator to move round to the other side, and hold the tool 
in the position indicated by c. The first position is preferable, 
chiefly because of two reasons : first, the tool may be held 
more steadily ; and, secondly, there is less tendency toward the 
production of a " wire edge." As the extreme edge becomes 
thin by grinding, it springs slightly away from the stone, and 
allows the chisel at points still farther from the edge to become 
thin, thus resulting in an extremely delicate edge which must be 
removed before the tool can be made sharp. In the effort to 
remove this wire edge, it frequently breaks off farther back than 



BENCH TOOLS. 



25 



is desired, and the process of whetting is prolonged. With the 
chisel held at c (instead of b, the proper position) the direc- 
tion of the motion relative to the tool aggravates this tendency 
of the light edge to spring away from the stone. 

The grinding process is complete when the ground surface 
reaches the cutting edge — a condition readily determined by 
holding the tool to the light. If it is still dull, there will be a 
bright line along the cutting edge. When this line has disap- 
peared, the tool is as sharp as it can be made by grinding, 
which, if persisted in, will only result in a wire edge. The 
action of the grindstone, however, is too severe to produce a 
good cutting edge, and the chisel, after being ground, must be 
whetted (107 -no). 

48. To whet the 
chisel, apply it to 
the oilstone A, Fig. 
51, in the position 
shown by the dot- 
ted outline b, and 
as it is moved back 

and forth along the length of the stone, as indicated by the 
arrows, gradually bring it to the position shown by b'. That is, 
the angle between it and the stone is to be increased until the 
cutting edge c comes in contact with the stone ; this position 
can be recognized by the sensation imparted to the hand, and 
the behavior of the oil with which the stone is lubricated. At 
first thought, it may seem that 
the bevel ab, Fig. 52, which was 
produced by the grinding, should 
be maintained in whetting; but 
to do this would require so much 
time that one corresponding very 
nearly to ab, as cd, is taken. 

Great care is necessary on the part of one unskilled to avoid giv- 






26 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 

ing the tool a rocking motion on the oilstone ; if this is indulged 
Fi 53 in, the edge will appear rounded, as 

^ shown by Fig. 53, and will be no 
sharper than if it had the form 
indicated by the dotted outline 
abc. When sufficiently whetted, the cutting edge, if held to 
the light, will show a dull, grayish hue. If a bright line appears 
along the edge, it is not yet sharp. The whetting turns a light 
wire edge over on the flat face, an exaggeration of which is 

shown by a, Fig. 54. This can- 
not always be seen, but may be 




detected by the finger ; it is re- 
moved by a single stroke of the 
blade with the flat face on the 
stone, as shown by a', Fig. 51. It is necessary, however, that 
every precaution be taken to prevent the production of a bevel 
indicated by the dotted line c, Fig. 54, and opposite that 
already existing. To guard against this, the chisel should be 
applied to the stone in the manner illustrated by the outline a, 
Fig. 51 (111-115). 

A tool must be whetted often enough to keep the edge in 
good condition ; it is dull whenever it fails to cut well. When, 
by frequent whetting, the whetted surface becomes so broad as 
to require considerable time in the production of the edge, it 
should be reground, and the process just described repeated. 

This method of sharpening the chisel will, in general, apply 
to the gouge, drawing-knife, and all similar tools. 

Saws. 

49. The efficiency of any saw is measured by the amount of 
force it absorbs in making a given cut or " kerf." For example, 
if one saw severs a 4" X 4" timber with half the force required 
by another, it is evident that the second saw is only one-half 
as efficient as the first. Almost every element that enters into 



BENCH TOOLS. 2? 

saw construction has its effect on the efficiency of the tool. 
Chief among them is the thickness of the blade, which, of 
course, determines the width of the kerf; for a wide kerf will 
require the removal of more material than a narrow one, and 
the force absorbed in each case must bear some relation to the 
amount of material removed. In recognition of this fact, the 
people of some eastern countries use saws designed to cut 
when drawn towards the operator, a method of handling that 
allows great thinness of blade — too great to stand the thrust by 
which our saws are driven into the work. But the result is 
that the Chinese saw, for example, Fig. 55 

which is represented by Fig. 55, 
accomplishes its work with re- 
markable ease. The shape of such a saw, however, and the 
awkward manner of applying force to it, probably more than 
neutralize the advantage gained from its delicacy, although in 
the abstract, the thinner the blade the better the saw. 

50. The form of our own saws is not the result of chance, 
but, on the contrary, has been developed after a careful study 
of the conditions under which they are required to work. 
Other things being equal, pushing a saw gives better results 
than pulling it. Under a thrusting force, it is found necessary 
to make the blade sufficiently thick and strong to resist bend- 
ing tendencies, but with no surplus material to add unneces- 
sary weight. In view of these facts the outline of the blade is 
tapered, as shown by Fig. 56. The blade is thicker also at the 
handle than at the point. To assist in giving it clearance in 

Fig. 57 




the kerf, it is tapered from the teeth to the back. This differ- 
ence in thickness is accomplished in the process of manufacture, 



28 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

by grinding the rough blade after it has been hardened. Im- 
perfections left by the hardening or the grinding process, may 
be detected in the finished saw by bending the blade, as shown 
by Fig. 57. If it is uniformly ground and hardened, the curve 
will be regular as shown ; if it is thick in spots, or if it varies in 
hardness, the curve will be uneven, as indicated by the dotted 
line. 

51. Set. — The thinning of the blade back from the cutting 
edge will not, in most cases, prevent the sides of the kerf from 
pressing against the saw. To meet this difficulty, the saw teeth 
are bent — one to one side, the next to the other side — so as to 
make the width of the kerf greater than the thickness of the 
blade. The amount of such bending, or " set," as well as its 
uniformity, can readily be seen by holding the saw to the light 
with the back of the blade next the eye ; it will then appear as 

Fig.ss shown by Fig. 58. 

^ ^ In very hard material the sides of 

" " *" the kerf are left smooth and even, and 

scarcely any set is required ; sometimes even none. But if the 
material is soft and spongy, the fibers spring away from the 
advancing teeth, and then come back again on the blade after 
the teeth have passed ; hence, a large amount of set is required. 
For most purposes at the bench, however, the set is sufficient 
when it can be easily and clearly seen. 

52. Size of Saw Teeth. — For proper action, each tooth 
should begin to cut when it enters the work, and continue cut- 
ting until it leaves the kerf, and, since the space in front of 
each tooth must contain the material removed by it, the capa- 
city of the space must be increased in those saws which are 
required to work through a considerable depth of material. A 
two-handed cross-cutting-saw ifor logs, therefore, has the teeth 
widely placed, thus making the intervals large. 

In panel-saws, such as are used at the bench, except in spe- 



BENCH TOOLS. 



29 



cial cases, the space is of the same size and form with the 
tooth. When the spaces are large, the teeth must be large, 
and, since the size of the spaces has a direct relation to the 
amount of material removed, it may be said that the size of 
the teeth depends on the size of the material in which the saw 
is to work. 

The size of saw teeth is expressed by the number contained 
in an inch. Thus " 6 teeth " means that the distance from 
one point to another is ^ ". 

53. Ripping-Saws and Cross-cutting-Saws. — A ripping-saw 
is one that is used in cutting with the grain of the wood, as on the 
line ab, Fig. 59. Across-cutting-saw 
is intended for use at right angles to 
the grain, as indicated by cd, Fig. l/^f* 
59. An oblique kerf, such as is 
shown by ef, Fig. 59, may in soft d 

wood be cut with the ripping-saw, which will work faster than 
the cross-cutting, but the work will be more smoothly done 
by the latter. A large knot in the course of the ripping-saw 
may make it best to substitute the cross-cutting-saw until the 
knot is passed through, after which the ripping-saw may be 
used again. A cross-cutting-saw for the bench should have 

Fig.GO 



Fig. 59 




Sec. A B. 



ELEVATION. 



a 22" or 24" blade with 7^- or 8 teeth to the inch; a rip- 
ping-saw should have a 24 " or 26 " blade, with 6 or 6^- teeth. 



SO BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

54. The Teeth of Ripping-Saws. — Fig. 60 shows a plan, 
elevation, and section of three teeth as they are usually made 
for a ripping-saw. The following paragraphs present a consid- 
eration of the action of an individual tooth. 

All wood is fibrous, and any tool which is to produce a cut 
along the length of the fibers, as the saw kerf ab, Fig. 59, must, 
at each period of action, take something from the ends of such 



61 




Fig. 


63 


ffip 


,b 


j!/ 


^a 


..I- - . 





fibers as may lie in the path of the proposed opening. In fulfil- 
ling this condition, the action of a ripping-saw's tooth is not. 
unlike the action of a chisel when used as shown by Fig. 149. 
Each tooth in its turn removes its share from the fiber ends over 
which it passes, just as the chisel at every change of position 
takes its slice and lengthens the cut. The cutting edge of 
a saw tooth, however, is bounded by a more obtuse angle than 
that of a chisel, and as a cutting tool is inferior. Thus, if one 
of the three teeth shown by Fig. 60 is applied to a saw kerf in 
the position it would occupy as part of a complete saw, it will 
appear as represented by Fig. 61, its motion being in the direc- 

_ tion of the arrow. It is defective as a cut- 

Fig. 63 
^^^^^^^^^^ ting tool, because of the position of the 

,-y line ab, the advancing face of the tooth. 

This defect is more clearly illustrated by 

Fig. 62 ; this shows how a chisel would look if its edge were 

made to cut in the same manner as that of a saw tooth. 

But the fact is that a great discrepancy exists between the 

form of the saw tooth and that of the chisel, for it has 

been demonstrated that a chisel, to give good results, must 



BENCH TOOLS. 3 I 

be at least as acute as is indicated by the dotted line a ; 
and it would seem that the former might be improved by 
bringing it more nearly to the outline of the latter. Sup- 
pose this be attempted, and that the face of the tooth in- 
dicated by the line eb, Fig. 60, be changed to cb\ Such 
a change must result either in removing material from the 
tooth, and thereby weakening it, or in changing the line cd 
to a position cd[. In other words, if the tooth is not weak- 
ened, the space between it and the next will be reduced. 
Again, if to make the advancing face still more acute, the line 
eb" is accepted, and the tooth is not made smaller (that is, 
weakened), there will be no space between it and the next 
tooth. Having no spaces, there can be no teeth, and conse- 
quently the attempted change is impossible. It will thus be 
seen that the angle of the advancing face of the ripping-saw 
tooth cannot, unless it is weakened, be much more acute than 
is shown by Fig. 60 and Fig. 61. 

The form of the tooth may be wholly changed, however, to 
the outline shown by Fig. 63, and some advantage may thus 
be gained in respect of the cutting angle ; but such a tooth, 
while suitable for machine-saws of considerable size, is too 
complicated for small saws. 

Nothing remains, then, as a possible means of improving the 
cutting edge of the saw tooth, except a modification of the 
angle bed, Fig. 60. If it could be shown that there is an excess 
of strength in the tooth, above what is needed to perform its 
work, the angle might be changed to b'ed, or even to b"ed, and 
the value of the tooth as a cutting tool be increased. More- 
over, it does not at first seem unreasonable to attempt such a 
change, for it is evident that the cutting wedge of the chisel 
(which we have regarded as the typical cutting tool), while 
much more acute than the angle bed, is yet strong enough to 
be entirely satisfactory. 

A more careful comparison of the saw and chisel, however, 



32 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



discloses the following facts : first, a saw tooth must be softer 
than a chisel in order that it may be set and filed, and being 
softer, is therefore weaker in its substance ; secondly, the width 
of the saw tooth is less than half the width of the narrowest 
chisel made, and, in this respect also, it is at a disadvan- 
tage ; and, thirdly, in using a chisel the operator's atten- 
tion is given entirely to its one cutting edge, and if at any 
time it is likely to receive too much strain, it is at once re- 
lieved ; while each saw tooth, on the contrary, forms but a 
small part of a tool that receives little attention and much vig- 
orous handling while it is being driven through straight grain, 
crooked grain, or hard knots, as the case may be. From a 
consideration of these points, it seems clear that the cutting- 
angle of a saw tooth must be less acute than that of a chisel. 
But the degree of acuteness can be determined only by use. 
Fig. 60 shows the form which years of experience have proved 
the most practicable for general work, and while some bench- 
workers do file their saws " under," producing a tooth similar 
to dcb\ as many more go to the other extreme and use a tooth 
similar to dcf. The typical form given is easily kept in order, 
and, when in that condition, will cut freely and well. 



Fi g . 64 



55. The Teeth of Cross-cutting-Saws. — If a ripping-saw 
is used directly across the grain, the fibers of the material will 

be torn from each 
other without being 



properly cut ; hence 
the necessity for a 
saw that will " cross- 
cut." Fig. 64 shows 
by its three views a 
representative form 
of tooth for this saw. 




r /.Sec. E F 



It will be seen by the figure that the tooth terminates in a trian- 



BENCH TOOLS. 



33 



Fig. 65 




gular point ; and also, that while the point a is formed on one 
side of the blade, the next, a', is formed on the opposite side ; 
thus throughout its length, the points of any two adjacent teeth 
being on opposite sides of the blade. This arrangement makes 
the end view of the blade show two parallel lines of points, and 
between them a triangular depression, which, when exaggerated 
by the "set," will appear as shown by 
section AB, Fig. 64. 

In action, the points a and a', Fig. 65, 
score the work, and the friction between 
the teeth and the cut fibers breaks up 
the latter, and they are carried off by 
the saw. 

Assuming that it is a matter of convenience to have these 
teeth, as well as those of the ripping-saw, equal to the space 
between any two of them, there are three questions which may 
be considered concerning their proportions. First, what shall 
be the inclination of the advancing edge or " face " of the 
tooth, as represented by the line ab compared with the line bd, 
Fig. 64? Holly, in his little work on "The Art of Saw-Filing," 
shows the similarity of action between the advancing edge ab 
and the edge of a pocket knife when made to cut across the 
grain, and asserts that a knife with its cutting edge perpen- 
dicular to the surface upon which it acts (a position equiva- 
lent to bd) will make a rougher cut, and require more force 
to carry it forward at a given depth, than when it is inclined 
in a position similar to that of the line ab. The result obtained 
from such an experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive, 
because of the great difference in the character of the cutting 
edges compared. But, if it is found that the knife with its 
keen cutting edge behaves more satisfactorily at an inclination 
to the work, it seems reasonable to conclude that the rougher 
edge of a saw tooth will give the best results when much more 
inclined. A consideration of these points justifies the belief 



34 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



that an angle of 60 degrees with the work, that is, with a line 
passing through the points a ' and a, is none too great, and all 
practice goes to show that teeth so formed not only do very 
smooth work, but cut with ease and rapidity. 

Secondly, what shall be the angle of the advancing face of 
the tooth, as represented by lines e'e and ef, Sec. EF, Fig. 64? 
Since this angle forms the cutting wedge of the tooth, it should 
be as acute as is consistent with strength. Greater strength 
being required for action in hard wood than in soft, it follows 
that this angle should be varied with the material in which it is 
used. For general work it may correspond to the angle e'ef. 

Thirdly, what shall be the acuteness of the point as indicated 
by the angle iaj, Sec. AB, Fig. 64 ? This, also, is determined 
by the character of the material to be cut. It should be more 
obtuse, as iak, for hard wood than for soft wood, not only be- 
cause additional strength is required, but also because, if too 
acute, the scoring will be done so easily that the fibers be- 
tween the scores will not break out, and the saw, being unable 
to pass down into new work, will slide along on the old. 



Fis.66 




Fi 


g. 


67" 






~7 





























Under such conditions, the bottom of the kerf will appear 
as shown by Fig. 66. A more obtuse angle will not pene- 
trate the work so readily, but it will break up the fibers better, 
and thus leave the kerf in proper form as shown by Fig. 67. 
The softer woods break out more easily than the harder ones, 
and, consequently, a keener point may be used in working in 
them. 



56. The Back-Saw is used only where accurate cuts are 
required. Its teeth, in form, are similar to those of the cross- 



BENCH TOOLS. 



35 




L™*X ^^^^^ 



cutting-saw, except that the line of the advancing face is 

brought forward as indicated by bkl, Fig. 64, to increase their 

efficiency when used with the 

grain. They are, however, » 

much finer, there being usually ft 

as many as sixteen to the 

inch. This saw cuts slowly as 

compared with a panel-saw, but may be used in very delicate 

work. It is used to cut in any direction relative to the grain 

of the wood. The bur left by the file after sharpening, forms 

a sufficient set. 

The blade A, Fig. 68, is in itself too thin to withstand the 
thrust necessary to drive it into the work, and is strengthened 
by an iron "back," B. This, being thicker than the blade, will 
not allow the saw to penetrate beyond a depth represented by 
the distance C. For this reason the blade is uniform in width 
instead of tapering. 



Fiff. GO 



Sec. AB 

{Enlarged) 



57. The Compass-Saw, shown by Fig. 69, is intended for 

sawing in curved lines. Its blade is extremely thick, and the 

teeth are given an enor- 
mous amount of set. See 
sections AB and CD, 
Fig. 69. If the curve in 
which it is to be used is 
very small, only a short 
portion of the blade's 
length next the point can 
be used. With a curve 

of longer radius, a greater length of blade may be brought into 

action. 

Its teeth are of the form shown by Fig. dm ^ i 

70, having the square face of the ripping- Wp 

saw, and the point of the cross-cutting-saw. 




;. ro 



36 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



They are thus adapted for use in any direction relative to the 
grain of the wood. 

Appliances for Saw Filing and Setting. 

58. A " Triangular Saw File " * is of the form shown by 
Fig. 71. A "slim" saw file is represented by Fig. 72; it is 

Fig. 71 Fig. 72 



Fig. 73 




Fig. 74 




REGULAR. 

two inches longer than a "regular" saw file of the 
same cross-section. A " double ender " is shown by 
Fig. 73, and a cross-section of all saw files, on an en- 
larged scale, by Fig. 74. 

59. Saw Sets. — Fig. 75 shows a simple form of set. 
The tooth to be bent is placed on the surface A, with 



1 Frequently called " three-square saw file. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



37 



the adjacent teeth in contact with B, B. Thus placed, the 

blade is allowed to rest 

on the screw C. A blow 

from a hammer on D 

bends or "sets" the tooth, 

and a spring returns D to 

the position shown. 1 The 

amount of set is regulated 

by the position of the 

screw C, and is greater, 

the lower C is fixed. If C 

is raised to coincide with 

the dotted line AE, the 

tooth will not be set. B, B can be adjusted to the depth on 

the tooth to which the set is to take effect. 

60. Swedge Sets for Ripping-Saws, illustrated by Fig. 76, 
are in general use on lame 

° Fig. 76 

saws and, occasionally, on 
small ones ; generally speak- 




ing, they do not concern the 
bench-worker. The set is 



V : 








1 D is not well shown in the engraving. Since it must act on only one 
tooth at a time, the end X is wedge-shaped. 



38 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



driven against the edge of the tooth, as shown by Fig. 77 ; by 
using one opening the center of the tooth is forced back, as 
at H; and by use of the other opening the points are spread, 
completing the work, as at G. A tooth thus set is more 
perfect in its action than when bent, since it cuts the full width 
of the kerf. 

61. Saw Clamps are convenient for holding the saw during 

Fig. 78 




Tri s .ro 



the filing process. Carpenters frequently make for themselves 
clamps similar to that represented by Fig. 78. It consists of 
two pieces of hard wood joined face to face by two screws 
(one near each end), by means of which the clamp may be 

fastened rigidly to the blade of 
the saw. It may then be fast- 
ened in the vise or held on 
the knee while the saw is being 
filed. A much better device is 
the saw clamp shown by Fig. 
79, which, while fastened to the 
bench, so holds the saw that it 
may be turned in almost any 
direction, thus enabling the 
workman to obtain a favorable 
light. 





BENCH TOOLS. 39 

To File and Set a Saw. 

62. Top-Jointing. — With the saw clamped teeth up, joint 
it by running a file along the tops of the teeth, as shown by 
Fig. 80. This is done to bring all the teeth to the same height, 
and also to maintain the form of the saw, which, along the 
line of the teeth, should be slightly con- in s . so 

vex. The jointing should leave a small 
facet on each tooth, which will be rec- 
tangular in a ripping-saw and triangular 
in a cross- cutting-saw. 

PLAN. 

63. Setting. — Beginning at one end, bend outward every 
second tooth, then turn the saw and bend the remaining teeth 
toward the opposite side of the blade. In the case of the rip- 
ping-saw, if the swedge set is used, the setting should be done 
before jointing. 

64. Filing. — It is of great importance that the saw be 
properly supported during the operation of filing. An unusual 
amount of noise shows that the blade is not properly clamped, 
or that the file is not being properly handled ; it is also a sure 
indication that the filing is not going on as fast as it might, and 
that the file is being injured. If the file is new, let the pres- 
sure be very light. Carry it across the work with a slow, steady 
movement. Never take short, quick strokes, as but little will 
be done in this way, and the file will suffer beyond repair. In 
filing a ripping-saw, the movement should be ^ 
exactly perpendicular to the plane of the blade, FiL £j? 

as indicated by plan, Fig. 81, and the outline lijfej^^i 
of the teeth maintained by an even contact, as eleva ™n. 

shown by the elevation in the same figure. But fc 

if the form of the teeth is to be changed, the file 

must be turned either in the direction indicated PLAN * 

by the arrow, Fig. 81, or in the opposite direction. 

In filing a cross-cutting-saw, the angle between the file and 



4 o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 




Fig. 82 



SIDE ELEVATION. 




END ELEVATION. 



the blade must be varied in accordance with the following con- 
siderations : first, the outline of the teeth may be preserved 
or changed in the manner just described in connection with 
the ripping-saw ; secondly, the angle of the advancing face 
(e'ef, Fig. 64) is determined by the inclination of the file 

to the blade, as shown 
by the plan, Fig. 82 ; 
thirdly, the angle of the 
point (iaj, Fig. 64) is 
determined by the incli- 
nation of the file to the 
blade, as shown by the 
end elevation, Fig. 82. 
The form of the teeth 
having been decided 
upon from principles already given, it may be produced without 
difficulty by attending to the foregoing directions. 

In filing any of the teeth herein discussed, the file should 
always be in gentle contact with the face of one tooth, as b, 
Fig. 81, while most of the cutting is done on the back of the 
next one a, which, as usually considered, is the tooth that is 
being filed. This tooth should be one which, by its set, bends 
away from the operator. Beginning at one end of the blade, 
he files every second tooth until the opposite end is reached, 
when the blade is turned, and the remaining teeth filed from 
the other side. 

No saw, even though the teeth are not bent, should be filed 
wholly from one side, for the file turns a slight edge, or bur ; 
and, since this increases the set, it should be evenly distributed 
on both sides of the blade. 

The filing on each tooth should continue until the facet 
produced by the jointing disappears. After this is accom- 
plished, a single stroke will make the tooth receiving it lower 
than the others. To avoid this, it will be found best to leave 



BENCH TOOLS. 41 

the teeth filed from the first side a little dull, for, in filing the 
intermediate teeth after the saw has been turned, the advancing 
faces of the others (the teeth first filed) are somewhat reduced. 
After every tooth has been passed over, if dull points are still 
to be seen, they may be sharpened from either side as their 
proportions may dictate. Regularity in the size and form of 
the teeth, and a similarity of appearance when viewed from 
either side of the blade, are the tests of good workmanship. 

65. Side- Jointing. — Usually, when the fil- 
ing is finished, the saw is ready for use, but it 
will cut more smoothly if it is jointed on the 
sides of the teeth. In Fig. 83, B is side- 
jointed, the surfaces produced agreeing with 
the dotted lines ; A is not side-jointed. 

Side-jointing may be accomplished by use 
of either a file or an oilstone. It is always 
necessary after a swedge set has been used. 

Planes and Plane- like Tools. 

66. The plan and the section, Fig. 84, show a smooth-plane. 
The stock a, when of wood, is usually of beech. In it is an 
opening, or " throat," b, which receives the Fig. 84 
iron c ; this is held in place by the wedge d. 
The lower part of the opening is called the 
mouth ; and, as shown by the figure, the shav- 
ing passes into the mouth, and out through section a b. 
the throat. The bottom of the plane, which rests upon the 
work, is called its " face." The iron usually stands at an angle 
of 45 degrees with the face. 

The bench-worker's set of planes comprises a smooth-plane, 
Fig. 85, which is about 8" in length; a jack-plane, Fig. 86, 
which is from 12" to 14" in length; a fore-plane, Fig. 87, from 
22" to 26" in length ; and a jointer, from 28" to 30" in length. 





42 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Similar purposes are served by the jointer and the fore-plane, 
the former being unnecessary except for large surfaces that are 
to be planed with accuracy. 



Fig. 85 




ETiar. 86 



Fig. 87 






67. The Length of the Plane-Stock determines, in a measure, 
the straightness of the work. Thus, a smooth-plane, if used on 

Fig. 88 an uneven surface, will, 

as shown by Fig. 88, rise 

over elevated portions and 

settle in hollows, taking its shaving without interruption, and 

producing no great change in the outline of the surface, while 

Fig> so a fore-plane or jointer 

similarly applied will, as 

shown by Fig. 89, cut 

only on the higher parts, 

and by so doing, produce an even surface. 

The stock of a smooth-plane is made short so that, by its use, 
a surface may be smoothed without incurring the necessity of 
straightening it. 

The fore-plane will smooth as well as the smooth-plane, but 
not until it has first straightened the surface. 

The jack-plane is used for cutting heavy shavings, and its 
length bears no relation to the character of the work expected 
of it, but is such as will enable the workman to grasp it easily 
and firmly. 

68. A "Plane-Iron" 1 for a wooden plane is of iron overlaid 
in part with steel. Its cutting edge is maintained in precisely 
the same way as that of a chisel. See 47 and 48. The angle 



1 Known also as " plane-bit. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



43 



Fig. oo 







of the cutting wedge, however, for all except the jack-plane 
may be more acute. 

69. The outline of the cutting edge, unlike that of the chisel, 
is never straight, being for the jack-plane slightly curved, as 

shown by Fig. 90, and for the smooth-plane F> is . 91 
and fore-plane (also for the jointer) of the 
form shown by Fig. 91. Being used for 
heavy work and frequently removing shav- 
ings as thick as one-sixteenth of an inch, 
the jack-plane, if its cutting edge were 
straight, would produce in the work at 
each stroke a rectangular channel from 
which the shaving must be torn as well as cut. Such 
a shaving would be likely to stick fast in the throat 
of the plane, or, under most favorable conditions, 
would require a large amount of force for its removal. 
A shaving removed by the iron represented by Fig. 
90, however, is not rectangular in section, but thick 
in the middle, tapering gradually to nothing at the edges. 
This form of iron is best adapted to the removal of a large 
amount of material at a stroke, but it leaves a succession of 
grooves upon the work which must be smoothed off by another 
plane. 

70. The form of the cutting iron in the smooth-plane and 
the fore-plane, as shown by Fig. 91, is straight throughout the 
greater portion of its width, and slightly rounded at the corners. 
The objections urged against the use of such an iron as this in 
the jack-plane, do not apply to its use in the smooth-plane or 
the fore-plane, because the jack-plane, to fulfil its office, must 
remove a heavy shaving ; the smooth-plane or the fore-plane, 
unless the surface upon which it acts is very much narrower 
than the width of the plane, is required to remove a shaving 
whose thickness rarely exceeds that of a sheet of paper. The 



44 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



groove caused by the removal of so delicate a shaving, is suf- 
ficiently blended with the general surface of the work, by the 
rounded corners of the iron. 

71. If a rough board is to be made smooth, or if a consider- 
able amount of material is to be removed to bring a piece of 
wood to size, most of the surplus stock should be taken off by 
the jack-plane, after which the smooth-plane should be used to 
give the surface desired. If the finished surface is to be straight 
as well as smooth, the fore-plane should follow the jack-plane. 
It is never necessary to follow the jack-plane with both the 
smooth-plane and the fore-plane. 

72. The Cap. — A supplementary iron, or "cap," shown by 

c, Fig. 92, is fastened to 
most plane-irons. Its use 
is well illustrated by the 
two sections, Figs. 93 and 
94. The single iron will 
do smooth work as long as 

the grain of the wood is favorable, as shown at a. When the 





grain becomes obstinate, as at b, the shaving, by running up on 
the iron, acquires a leverage which causes it to split in advance 



BENCH TOOLS. 



45 



of the cutting edge, below the reach of which it breaks, leaving 
a surface extremely rough. The office of the cap is to break 
the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut, Fig. 94, and thus 
prevent a gain of leverage on its part. 




The distance at which the cap is set from the edge of the 
iron, must vary with the thickness of the shaving taken. For a 
smooth-plane or a fore-plane, a thirty-second of an inch is fre- 
quently not too close, while for a jack-plane an eighth of an 
inch may not be too great a distance. 

A cutting iron and cap together are frequently spoken of as 
a " double iron." 



73. Narrowness of Mouth in a plane is the chief element 
in the production of smooth surfaces. If, in Fig. 94, that por- 
tion of the stock in advance of the iron, marked c, were want- 
ing, the shaving, having nothing to hold it down, would rarely 
be broken, notwithstanding the presence of the cap. A wide 
mouth would produce a similar effect. This being true, what- 
ever other conditions there may be, the wider the mouth is, 
the less frequently the shaving will be broken and, in obstinate 
grain, the rougher will be the work. 



46 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

74. To Adjust the Iron. — To set the iron deeper, so that 
a heavier cut may be taken, strike it a light blow, as indicated 
by the arrow e, Fig. 84. If a lighter cut is required, strike the 
stock as indicated by the arrow f. When the iron is in the 
right position, a light blow will tighten the wedge. To remove 
the iron and wedge, turn the plane over so that the face is 
uppermost, grasp the iron and wedge with the right hand, hold 
the back end of the plane between the thumb and finger of the 
left, and strike the stock at / upon the surface of the bench. 
A single blow is usually sufficient. 

Never strike the plane while it is resting on the bench or any 
support that is firm. It should be held in the hand clear of 
everything ; but, if this is not convenient, one end may rest on 
the knee. 

To set the iron in a wooden plane, hold the stock in such a 
way that, while the face rests on the hand, the end of the fore- 
finger may extend across the mouth. Put the iron in place, 
allowing its cutting edge to rest on the forefinger, which should 
keep it from projecting. Insert the wedge, push it down with 
the thumb, and by a light blow with the hammer drive the iron 
down until its projection beyond the level of the face is equal 
to the thickness of the shaving that the plane is to take ; a sin- 
gle tap on the wedge will then tighten the iron in place. The 
distance that the iron projects, can easily be determined by 
sighting along the face of the plane. 

The wedge must not be driven too hard, for a plane may be 
so distorted by a hard- driven wedge as to make it incapable of 
doing good work. The iron will be held in place even when 
the wedge is so loose that it may be drawn out with the fingers. 

Notwithstanding the fact that wooden plane-stocks are made 
from material little affected by atmospheric influences, they 
will warp enough, especially when nearly new, to bring the face 
considerably out of a true plane. When, from this cause, the 
plane fails to do good work, it must be jointed. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



47 



v 



M 




75. To Joint a Plane, fasten it in a vise with the face up 
and the front end to the right. The iron should be in place, the 
cutting edge well back within the mouth, 

and the wedge driven as for work. It is now |a e i;- , { 

necessary to determine whether the plane 
to be jointed is twisted or not (97). Ap- 
ply two parallel strips, or "winding-sticks," 
(the longer legs of two framing-squares will 
answer), one across each end of the plane, 
as indicated by Fig. 95. After making 
sure that they are parallel, sight across one 
to the other. As the eye is lowered, if the 
one farther away is lost sight of all at the 
same time, the plane is "out of wind," and 
needs only to be straightened ; but, if one 
end of the straight-edge that is farther 
from the eye, disappears before its other 
end, as in the elevation, Fig. 95, it is evident that the two 
corners a and b, diagonally opposite, are high, and more must 
be taken from them than from the other corners. With this 
understanding, the fore-plane or the jointer may be applied 
until the plane is jointed, that is, until the face is a true 
plane. 

During the planing process, frequent tests must be made 
with the parallel strips, to make sure that the high corners 
are being brought down properly. In the early stages of 
the work, the try-square may be used occasionally to keep 
the face as nearly as may be at right angles to one side, 
and the straightness of the face may be determined either 
by sighting or by use of the framing-square as a straight- 
edge. A true face having been produced, the sharp angles 
between it and the two sides should be changed to slight 
chamfers, inasmuch as the sharp edges, if not removed, are 
likely to splinter off. 




48 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

A few drops of lubricating oil rubbed on the newly- 
planed surface, will prevent wear and keep shavings from 
sticking. 

Wooden bench planes have had their day, and are going out 
of use. 

76. Iron Bench Planes possess the general characteristics of 
jpj OG the wooden ones, but are superior 

to them in several respects. They 
are always perfectly true and, there- 
fore, neve'r require jointing. The 
cutting "iron," which, in this case, 
is not of iron at all, but of steel, is much thinner than that in 
wooden planes, and is, therefore, more readily sharpened. Its 
greater thinness is made possible by the thorough manner in 
which it is supported. It may be set and accurately adjusted 
in a very short time. 

The arrangement of parts in Bailey's iron planes may be 
understood by reference to Fig. 96, which represents a jack- 
plane. The " wedge " A is of iron of the form shown ; it 
admits the screw E through an enlargement of a short slot, and 
drops down, allowing E to take effect. By a movement of the 
clamp B, the wedge A is made to press upon the iron near its 
cutting edge, while the clamp presses against it at F. The 
screw E is never moved. The cutting iron is adjusted for 
depth of cut by the action of the thumb-screw D, which, when 
turned in one direction, moves the iron downward, and when 
its motion is reversed moves it upward. 

Thus a single movement of B releases the wedge and iron, 
and a reverse movement secures them again, while D furnishes 
a ready and positive means for adjusting the cutting edge with 
a degree of delicacy which it is impossible to attain in wooden 
planes. These planes, all having the same adjustments, are 
made in every size. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



49 




Fig. 08 




77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined 

may be had, made up of the Bailey move- 
ments mounted in a suitable frame, to which 
a wooden face is fastened. Fig. 97 shows 
a Stanley combination smooth-plane. 

78. A Circular-Plane has a thin steel face, straight when 
free, but capable of having its ends thrust 
down or drawn up, thus making the 
face concave or convex, and adapting it 

' to work on an outside or an inside curve. 
^ ^^7:-:-^^^ , -<[^" — - Fig. 98 shows a Bailey's adjustable cir- 
cular-plane. 

79. Block-Planes are small, and are intended for use chiefly 
on end grain. They generally have a single inverted iron, 
which turns the shaving on the bevel Fig. 00 
instead of on the face of the iron. A ^^/^^-^^^ 
They have many different forms, from 
among which Fig. 99 has been selected 
as a type. In this plane the throat may be made narrow 
or wide as is desired ; the adjustment is controlled by the 
screw A. 

80. Spokeshaves have the action 
of planes, but are not usually classi- 
fied with them. A simple form is 
shown by Fig. 100. By the cross-sec- 
tion it will be seen that it has almost 
no guiding surface corresponding to 
the face of a plane. This feature 
adapts it to work of irregular outline. 

81. Rabbeting-Planes have narrow stocks. The cutting 
edge is set in the face of the plane obliquely, and the iron is 
wide enough to extend beyond the sides of the stock, as shown 





5o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. lOl 



&. 



by Fig. 1 01. Rabbeting-planes are designed for use in 
interior angles. The oblique position of the iron produces a 
shearing cut which promotes smooth- 
ness in action. 

The shaving of the rabbeting-plane 
instead of passing through the stock is 
turned in such a way as to be dis- 
charged from one side ; an arrange- 
ment common to matching-planes, beading-planes, molding- 
planes, and plows (82, 83, 84, and 85). 




Fig. 102 
A B 

JUI 


efnJ Lj-JT 



~w\ 



82. Matching-Planes are used to form a tongue and 
groove, as shown respectively by a and b, Fig. 102. 

Wooden matching-planes, Fig. 102, are 
sold in pairs, one plane being fitted with a 
single cutting edge, to form the groove, the 
other with a double cutting edge, to form the 
tongue. Both are guided by the " fence " 
C, which moves in contact with the working 
face of the piece operated upon. The 
groove and the tongue should both be car- 
ried to as great a depth as the plane will 
cut. 

An iron matching-plane, designed to serve 
the purpose of the two wooden ones, is now in general use. 
Its fence is pivoted to the face in such a way that it can be 
turned end for end ; in one position two cutters are exposed 

and the plane is adjusted to form the tongue ; 

when its position is reversed, the fence covers one 

of the cutting edges, and puts the plane in shape 

for making the groove. 

The size of matching-planes is indicated by the 

thickness of the material they are intended to 
Vv VJ snatch. 



Q 



Trig, 

A 



103 
B 



n n 



BENCH TOOLS. 



51 



n 



83. Hollow and Round are terms applied to such planes 
as are shown by A and B, Fig. 103. They are used, as their 
forms suggest, in producing hollows and in rounding projecting 
edges. Their size is indicated by a number, or by the width of 
the cutting edge. 

84. Beading-Planes are used in forming beads (220), and 
they may be single or double, that is, form one or two Ki s . 104 
beads at a time. For beading on the edge of work, 
they are provided with a fence, A, Fig. 104. For 
use away from the edge, they are made to form three 

or more beads at the same time, and have 

nno guide, in which case they are known as 
reeding- planes, Fig. 105. The first three 
beads are made with the plane guided by a straight- 
edge temporarily fastened to the surface of the work • 
the remainder are formed by using those already- 
made as a guide, the plane being moved into new 
work at the rate of only one bead at a time. Other 
beading-planes, more complicated than those described, are con- 
structed on much the same principle as a plow. The size of a 
beading-plane is indicated by the width of the bead it will form. 

85. Plows are used in making rectangular slots or " plows " 
of any width, depth, and distance from the working-edge of 
the material. The width of the cut is 

ordinarily determined by the width of 
the iron used. A set of irons is sup- 
plied with the tool, which is shown by 
Fig. 106. A plow wider than the 
widest iron can, of course, be made 
by going over the work a second time. 
The depth of the cut is regulated by 
a little shoe (not shown), which is raised or lowered by the 
screw A. When this is adjusted, the tool can be used until 




52 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the lower surface of the shoe comes in contact with the face 
of the work, after which the cutting ceases. Care should be 
taken that the full depth is reached at all points along the 
length of the work. The distance between the groove and the 
working-edge is regulated by the fence B, which is adjusted 
by nuts C acting on the screws D. When ready for use, the 
fence should be parallel to the narrow iron face-piece E. 

86. Combination Planes which may be used in place of the 
plow, beading-plane, rabbeting-plane, etc., are found on the 
market, and many of them are serviceable tools. 

87. Scrapers. — Hand-scrapers are made of saw-plate — ma- 
irig. 107 terial of about the thickness of a panel- 
saw blade, and having the same degree of 
hardness. They are usually rectangular, 
and about 4" X 5", but may be of almost 
any size and shape. The cutting edge is 
most easily formed by the production of 
a surface at right angles to the sides, 
as indicated by ab, Fig. 107, thus giving 

two cutting angles, cef and dfe. When a more 
acute cutting edge is desired, the form shown by X| 
Fig. 108 may be adopted ; but, as a rule, there 
is little gained by the keener cutting edge, and 
double the labor is required to keep it sharp. 
Scrapers are sharpened by filing or grinding. If 
smooth work is to be done, the roughness of the 
edge may be removed on an oilstone, but the 
rougher edge will cut faster and, generally, will 
be more satisfactory. 

Fig. 109 Fig. 109 shows a scraper mounted some- 

what like a plane. The scraper blade A, by 
means of the two nuts B, B, may be changed 
from a position inclined to the face, as shown, 
to one perpendicular to the face. 





BENCH TOOLS. 



53 



Fig. HO 



2C£CCCC= 



Boring Tools. 

88. Augers. — Fig. no shows a double-twist spur auger, 
a form generally used by carpenters. 
They are made in sizes varying from 
J" to 4" (in diameter), but are not 
much used below 1". The spur A, 
Fig. in, is in the form of a tapered 
screw, which, besides centering the auger in its motion, draws or 
"feeds " it into the work. The two nibs B, B score the work, 
and the lips C, C cut and remove the shavings, which are carried 

Fig. Ill 




to the surface by the screw-like action of the body of the tool. 
Fig. 112 shows part of a single-twist auger which, as will 
be seen, has but a single nib B, and a single cutting lip C. 
The cuttings are thrown into the center of the hole, and de- 
Fig. 112 




livered easily by this auger, and, in this respect, it is superior 

to the double-twist, which crowds the cuttings to the outside 

of the hole, where they are likely to become jammed between 

the tool and the work. This characteristic of the single-twist 

auger particularly adapts 

it to the boring of deep 

holes. " Ship augers ' ' are 

of this kind, and have 

handles like the one shown by Fig. 113. This form of handle 



Fi~. 113 




54 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

has the advantage of allowing the use of both hands, without the 
interruption experienced in using the one illustrated by Fig. no. 
Augers are seldom required by the bench-worker, but are 
presented here because of their relation to other boring tools. 

89. Auger-Bits. — The auger-bit most in use is shown by 
Fig. 114. It is sold in sets of thirteen bits each, varying in 

size by sixteenths, from \ n 
to 1". Each bit is marked 
by a small figure on the 
shank, which indicates its 
size in the scale of sixteenths. Thus the figure 9 is to be inter- 
preted as T y. 

90. Augers and auger-bits are sharpened by filing. The 
scoring nib B, Figs, in and 112, which is usually the first part 
to become dull, should be filed wholly from the inside. If 
filed on the outside, the diameter of the cut it makes will be 
smaller than that of the body of the bit. The cutting lip C 
should be sharpened from the lower side, the file being inclined 
to preserve the original angle. With the spur in good order, 
whenever the tool refuses to " feed," it is clear that the bit 
needs sharpening somewhere. 

91. Center-Bits are convenient for boring holes of large 
diameter in delicate material, such as would be likely to split 
under the action of an auger-bit. By reference to Fig. 115, it 

will be seen that the spur A, 

Fig. 115 l ' 

^^p^ which centers the bit in the 

A ~~~P\ , work, is triangular in section. 

^^ This form allows the bit to feed 

rapidly, or very slowly, in accordance with- the degree of pres- 
sure applied to it. The point, or "nib," B cuts the fibers about 
the proposed hole, and the cutting lip C removes the material. 
The center-bit does not work well in end grain. When dull it 
may easily be sharpened by whetting. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



55 



92. Expansive Bits are so constructed as to be adjust- 
able for holes of any size, within certain limits. There are 
several forms in use, one of which is shown by Fig. 116. 
This, without the 
movable cutter C, 
will bore a hole 



Fig. 116 




J" in diameter, the 
screw A centering 
and feeding it into the work, B scoring, and a cutting lip in 
advance of B (not shown) removing the shavings. When C is 
inserted as shown in the figure, in addition to the action just 
described, there is a supplementary action on the part of C, its 
nib, B', scoring, and its cutting edge removing the chips. The 
cutter C is held in place by the screw D. By loosening D, C 
may be moved from or towards the center of the bit, or taken 
out altogether, and replaced by a cutter of different length. By 
using a short cutter in the place of C, a hole of any diameter 
from f" to 2" may be bored, and with the cutter shown, any 
hole from 2" to 3" maybe bored. The range of the bit, there- 
fore, is from f" to 3". 

93. Small Bits. — Bits for boring holes less than ^" in diam- 
eter are of many forms, but by far the most satisfactory is the 

"quill " bit shown by Fig. 
117. It has no delicate 
parts ; if carefully handled 
it will not split the mate- 
rial ; it enters the work rapidly, makes a round, smooth hole, 
and when dull can easily be sharpened by whetting or grind- 
ing. It will not, however, work with the grain. Quill bits as 
small as T y in diameter are in common use. 

Gimlet-bits are illustrated by Fig. ti8, which represents one 
of the best forms. Most 
bits of this class are too 
weak to render the ser- 



Fig. 117' 



Fig. 118 



$6 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

vice expected of them, and soon become bent or broken. They 
are likely to split the work and are not easily sharpened. 

94. Bit-Braces. — The well-made wooden brace, which for 
a long time ornamented the walls of the cabinet-maker's shop, 
has disappeared, and the lighter and more convenient iron 
brace is used in its stead. A simple form of iron brace is rep- 
resented by Fig. 119. To insert a bit, grasp the sleeve A and, 
holding it firmly, turn the brace out by using the other hand on 
B. When the jaws, C, are opened sufficiently to admit the bit 
shank, put it in place, reverse the motion of the hand on B, and 
the bit will be fastened. 

Fio.. 119 




A ratchet brace is shown by Fig. 120. Its office is to turn 
the bit forward while the brace itself, instead of making a com- 
plete revolution, has only a forward and backward movement. 
As represented by the section AB, the frame c is fastened to 
the body of the brace of which it becomes a part, d is a spindle 
which terminates in the socket e, and / is a ratchet-wheel, 
which is fastened'to d. On each side of the ratchet-wheel there 
is a pawl which, when free to move in response to the action of 
a spring, engages the notches in the ratchet-wheel / With the 
pawls thus engaged, the brace may be used in precisely the same 
way as the one already described. But, by turning the ring 
g, one of the pawls is disengaged, and the other acting alone 



BENCH TOOLS. 



57 



will move the spindle d only when the brace is moving in one 
direction, the pawl simply slipping over the notches of the 
ratchet-wheel when the motion is reversed. In this way, a 
bit may be driven to any depth although each movement of 
the brace may be less than half of a complete turn. By a 
proper movement of the ring g, the motion of the bit may be 
reversed. 

Fig. 120 




Section A B. 

(Enlarged) 

The ratchet-brace is useful in boring holes near walls, or in 
corners where it is impossible to turn a common brace. 

The size of any brace is indicated by its " swing," that is, 
by the diameter of the circle described by B, Fig. 119. The 
better class are nickel-plated, and are thereby prevented from 



58 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



95. A "Universal, Angular, Bit-Stock," such as is repre« 
sented by Fig. 121, is, for many purposes, more useful than 



Fig. 131 




the ratchet-brace. The bit is inserted at A, and a common 
brace is applied at C. The mechanical arrangement of the 
parts is such, that, when the brace turns the spindle C, the part 
A which holds the bit is also turned, notwithstanding the in- 
clination of one part to the other. 1 Compared with the ratchet- 
brace, this has the advantage of producing a continuous motion 
of the bit. By its use a hole may be bored in the corner as 
easily as in the middle of a room. 

The angle of the joint may be changed from that shown to 
one of 180 degrees, by an adjustment at D. 

96. Automatic Boring Tool. — A convenient substitute for 
a brad-awl is represented by Fig. 122. The drill, or bit, A is 



Fig. 12 




Considered as a mechanical movement, this is known as Hooke's joint. 



BENCH TOOLS. 59 

held in a suitable chuck C, at the end of the bar D, which 
runs in B. The drill is brought into contact with the work, 
and pressure in the direction of the arrow, slides B down upon 
D, and this movement causes D with the drill to revolve. The 
full extent of the movement having been reached, a relaxing of 
pressure leaves D free to return to its first position, as shown, 
the rotary motion of A, meanwhile, being reversed. These 
impulses can be imparted to the drill with great rapidity, and 
the work is quickly done. The dots below the figure, 122, 
indicate the full diameter of the different drills which are fur- 
nished with the tool. 

Miscellaneous Tools. 

97. Winding-Sticks, or "parallel strips," are wooden strips 
of any convenient length, the edges of which are straight and 
parallel. When applied to a surface, they increase its breadth 
in effect, and by thus giving a better opportunity of compari- 
son, show whether the surface is " in wind," or twisted. For 
an illustration of their use, see 75. 

98. Hand Screw-Drivers are in form similar to that shown 
by Fig. 123. The part which is to engage the screw should 
have parallel sides, as shown by Fig. 124, and never be wedge - 





shaped, Fig. 125. In the latter case, it will be seen that force 
applied in an attempt to turn a screw, will have a tendency 
toward lifting the screw- driver from its place. 

A set of three or four screw-drivers, having blades varying in 



6o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. 1SG 



size to suit different-sized screws, so that a fairly good fit may 
always be made, are indispensable to good work where screws 
are much used. 

Fig. 125 

99. Brace Screw-Drivers, instead of having 
wooden handles, are provided with shanks for 
use in a brace. A good form is shown by 
Fig. 126. The brace gives a continuous mo- 
tion, and 
the screw 
may be 

set much more rapidly by 

its use than with the hand screw-driver. There are many cases, 

however, in which a brace is useless. 

100. Hammers. — Fig. 127 shows a carpenter's hammer. The 
head A is wholly of steel. The face B is hardened so as not 
to be injured by repeated blows upon the nail, which is com- 
paratively soft, but the idea prevailing among inexperienced 
workmen, that the hammer is indestructible, is a false one. 
When two bodies are brought together forcibly, as a hammer 





and a nail, the softer body yields, and a change takes place in 
its form. If the nail were harder than the hammer, it would not 
be injured, but the hammer would show an impression of the 
nail head. Careless or ignorant workmen sometimes take an 



BENCH TOOLS. 



6l 



old file for a punch or a nail-set, and use a hammer upon it. 
The file is harder than the hammer, and the result is that the 
face of the latter is badly scarred. 

The claw C makes the hammer a very effective tool for 
withdrawing nails. 

Hammers vary in size from seven to twenty ounces ; the 
bench-worker usually employs one weighing from fourteen to 
sixteen ounces. 

101. The Hatchet is a useful tool for bringing large pieces 
of material to size roughly, and in skillful hands it may be 
used with accuracy as well as effect. When it is compared 
with the hammer, it will be seen that a blade C, Fig. 128, takes 



Fig-. 128 




the place of the claw C, Fig. 127. As an instrument for driv- 
ing nails it is clumsy, and the opening d, for withdrawing nails, 
amounts to but little. In sharpening, the hatchet is ground on 
both sides of the blade, and whetted on an oilstone. 

102. Mallets. — The difference in effect between a blow 
given by a hammer and one given by a mallet is so great that, 
although similar in many respects, the two tools are adapted to 
widely different uses. A blow from a hard, elastic hammer is 
sharp and decisive, and its force is absorbed almost as soon as 
it is received. Comparatively speaking, therefore, its effect 
must be local. If such a blow is received on a chisel handle, 
for example, a large part of its force is wasted in affecting the 



62 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

handle, a part only being transmitted through the handle to 
the cutting edge, the only place where it can be of use. A 
blow from a soft, less elastic mallet, on the contrary, is more 
general in its effect. Much of the force remains for an instant 
stored in the mallet, by which it is given out somewhat grad- 
ually, allowing time for the impulse to pass beyond the point 
where it is received. The effect of two different explosive 
agents will serve as an illustration. As compared with nitro- 
glycerine, powder burns slowly, and, when put into a rifle barrel, 
gradually develops its force upon the bullet until, when the lat- 
ter reaches the end of the barrel, it has gained velocity enough 
to carry it a mile or more. But if a charge of nitro-glycerine, 



TTig. 139 




having a total explosive force no greater than that of the pow- 
der, be substituted, the result will be very different. The rapid- 
ity with which nitro-glycerine burns — the suddenness of the 
impulse — is such that, before the bullet can respond to its influ- 
ence, the breach of the barrel is destroyed. 

The blow of a mallet on a chisel resembles the action of 
powder on a bullet. It is a pushing action, and, in this respect, 
is unlike that of the hammer. A chisel, therefore, will be 
driven deeper into the work by a blow from a mallet than by 
one of the same force from a hammer, while a chisel handle 
which has withstood blows from a mallet for years, may be 
shattered in a single hour by use under a hammer. 

An excellent form of mallet is shown by Fig. 129. 



BENCH TOOLS. 63 

103. Sand-Paper is neither a tool nor an appliance, strictly 
speaking, but, on account of its tool-like action, it should be 
mentioned with them. The "sand" used in making sand-paper 
is crushed quartz, and is very hard, angular, and sharp. It is 
graded as to degree of coarseness, by precipitation, and then 
glued to paper. The finest sand-paper is marked 00, from which 
the gradations run o, ^, 1, i^-, 2, 2^, and 3, which is the coarsest. 

104. Miter-Boxes are useful in cutting the ends of light 
strips of wood at an angle of 45 degrees ; they are frequently 
adapted to cutting at other angles. When of wood, like the 
one represented by Fig. 219, they are usually made by the 
workman himself. 

A wooden miter-box is composed of three pieces — a bot- 
tom and two sides. It is necessary that the bottom piece 
be uniform in width and thickness, and have jointed edges, and 
it is well to prepare the other pieces in the same way. After 
the box is nailed, the sides should be square with the outside 
face of the bottom piece ; this surface may now be used as 
a working-face. Lay off across the working-face two lines at a 
distance apart equal to the width of the face, thus forming with 
the outside edges of the box, a square. The diagonals of this 
square will represent the two oblique cuts, one marked c, and 
the one taken by the saw, Fig. 219. Project up the sides such 
lines from the points thus fixed, as will be useful in making the 
cuts ; the sawing is then done with the back-saw. No special 
directions are required for laying off the cut d. 

105. Iron Miter-Boxes are ^^ R Fig. 130 
now in general use. The ac- 
curacy with which work may 
be done by the use of one 
will more than compensate any 
bench-worker for the money 
invested in it. Fig. 130 may be taken as a type ; the work A 




6 4 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



is supported by the frame as shown, while the proper position of 
the saw is maintained by the uprights B, which, in the sawing 
process, slide down into the standards C. The saw may be set 
at any angle with the back of the box D, by swinging the frame 
E, which supports the standards C ; E is held in position by a 
suitable fastening operated by F. 

1 06. Bench Clamps are useful in holding two or more pieces 
of material together temporarily. They are particularly valu- 
able for keeping pieces that have been glued, in place until they 
are dry. 

Wooden clamps, or hand-screws, are of the form shown by 
Fig. 131. The whole length of the jaws, AB and A'B', may 
be made to bear evenly upon the work, or to bear harder at 
certain points, as A A' or BB'. 

Iron clamps afe illustrated by Fig. 132, but the mechanical 
arrangement differs in different makes. Such clamps are very 

Fig. 133 





useful in many kinds of work, but, all things considered, it is 
doubtful whether they are as serviceable to the bench-worker 
as the wooden ones just described. 

107. Grindstones are selected with reference to their "grit." 
A coarse, soft-grit stone will remove material much more rap- 
idly than one of finer grit, but the surface produced will be 
very rough compared with that produced by the other. Thus, 



BENCH TOOLS. 65 

when it is necessary to remove material for the purpose of giv- 
ing shape to a casting or forging, the coarse, soft-grit stone is 
better ; but if a smooth cutting edge is required, one of fine 
grit should be used. For wood-working tools, a stone rather 
fine and soft is found best. The speed of a power grindstone 
must vary from 500 to 1000 circumferential feet a minute, de- 
pending upon its diameter, and the accuracy and steadiness 
with which it runs. It may not be well to run a 20" stone 
beyond the minimum limit, while one of 4' or 5' may give good 
results if run beyond the maximum. As a rule, a stone for 
tool grinding is at its maximum speed when, if run faster, it 
would throw water from its face. 

By circumferential speed is meant the speed of the circumfer- 
ence of the stone. This is found by multiplying the diameter 
of the stone, in feet, by 3.1416 (ratio of diameter to circum- 
ference), which will give the circumference of the stone, in feet, 
and this product by the number of revolutions per minute. 1 

1 Example I. — A 4' stone is run at 30 revolutions a minute; what is its 
circumferential speed? 

The circumference of a 4' stone is 

4' X 3.1416= 12.56'. 

This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make but I revolution 
per minute; but, since it makes 30 revolutions, its speed is 

12.56' X 30 =37 6 -8°' or 377' (nearly). 

Example II. — It is desired that a 30" stone should have a circumferen- 
tial speed of 280' per minute. How many revolutions should it make? 
30" = 2.5'. 
The circumference of a stone 2.5' in diameter is 

2.5' x 3-1416= 7.85'. 

This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make 1 revolution per 
minute. But the circumferential speed is 280' per minute, and therefore 
the number of revolutions made must be 

280' -i- 7.85 = 36 (nearly). 



66 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

1 08. Water is used on a stone as a means of carrying off 
the heat resulting from friction between stone and tool ; it also 
washes away the particles of stone and steel that come from 
the grinding, and which, without the water, would fill the inter- 
stices between the cutting points of the stone, and make the 
surface so smooth as to be useless. 

A grindstone, when not in use, should not stand in or over 
water. Water softens a stone, and one unequally exposed to 
moisture will be found softest in such places as are most 
exposed. When brought into use, the softer parts wear away 
more rapidly than the others, causing the stone to become " out 
of round." Water is best supplied from a tank, or from service 
pipes, so arranged that it may be shut off when the stone is not 
running, the drip-pan under the stone being at all times per- 
fectly drained. After every precaution has been taken, the 
stone will in time become untrue and need attention. 

109. To True a Grindstone. — When a stone becomes 
untrue, or the outline of the face, which should be slightly con- 
vex, becomes concave, it may be corrected by using a piece of 
soft iron as a turning tool, the stone being run dry. The action 
of the tool may be explained as follows : the soft iron allows 
small particles of the stone to imbed themselves in its surface, 
from which position they act against the revolving stone, and 
the cutting is done by these imbedded particles and not by the 
iron. The latter is worn in the process, however, and, as its 
cutting surface becomes enlarged, it should be turned to bring 
a new angle or face into action. This operation is easily per- 
formed by using a piece of gas pipe (about 1") for a turning tool. 

no. Truing Devices are now generally attached to power 
grindstones. They are of several forms, of which that shown 
by Fig. 133 may be taken as an example. The base of this at- 
tachment is secured to the grindstone frame as near the stone as 
may be convenient. A is a hardened steel screw which revolves 




BENCH TOOLS. 67 

freely on its bearings B. The frame in which B runs is pivoted 

at C, in such a way that by a movement of the hand-wheel 

D, B will move forward in the direction of the arrow. By 

adjusting the hand-wheel D, A is brought into contact with the 

face of the moving stone, and at once Fi 133 

begins to revolve. The action of its 

thread would move it endwise, were 

it not prevented by its bearings. The 

effect of this angular advancement of 

the thread, which is not met by a 

corresponding lateral movement of 

the parts in contact, is a shearing cut across the face of the 

stone. When the screw becomes dull it may be softened and 

recut. 

in. Oilstones. — The most useful of all oilstones are 
found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. They are divided into two 
classes, known to the trade as the Arkansas stone and the 
Washita stone. The former is of very fine grain, appearing 
much like white marble. It is used in sharpening the most 
delicate instruments, and produces an edge of remarkable 
keenness. The Washita stone is much coarser in grain, with a 
color sometimes almost white, but more frequently shaded by 
lines of a reddish cast. It cuts with rapidity, and with much 
greater delicacy than would be expected of so coarse a stone. 
Probably no better oilstone exists for sharpening wood-working 
and similar tools. 

112. Oil is used on an oilstone for the same reason that 
water is used on a grindstone. To be serviceable, it should be 
as free as possible from all tendency to become thick or gummy. 
A good quality of sperm oil, or even lard oil, may be used ; olive 
oil is frequently recommended. 

113. Form of Oilstones. — It is evident that if oilstones 
could be made round, and mounted like grindstones, they could 



68 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

be used more effectively than when only a small block is avail- 
able. The reason they are not so mounted is that, in their 
native bed, the whetstone layers are traversed in every direction 
by veins of hard quartz, which, if allowed to enter into a finished 
stone, would destroy the cutting edge of any tool that might 
be applied to it. It is so uncommon to find large pieces of 
whetstone free from the quartz, that disks above 4" or 5" in 
diameter can be afforded only by those to whose work they are 
indispensable. 

For bench purposes, Washita stones are about 1" X 2" x 7"; 

but no attempt is made to have them 

Fig . 134 f an y un iform size. Such a stone, when 

set into a block and provided with a 

cover to keep out the dust, is ready 

for use. See Fig. 134. Its surface 

should be kept as nearly as possible straight, in the direction of 

its length, and should never be hollowed across its breadth. 

When out of shape it must be trued. 

114. Slips of Washita stone whose cross-sections are round, 

square, triangular, etc., are supplied 
by the trade. A wedge-shaped slip 
is represented by Fig. 135 ; it is a 
form extremely useful to the bench- 
worker. 

115. To True an Oilstone, mix water with sharp sand until 
the mixture is thin enough to run. Apply a quantity of this 
to the surface of a flat board or plank, and, with the face that 
is to be trued in contact with the sand-covered board, move 
the stone about, frequently changing the direction of its motion. 
Under this treatment, the surface of the stone will be evened 
up rapidly. If the sand that is first applied becomes dull, it 
may be replaced by new. 



BENCH TOOLS. 6g 

Another, and usually a more convenient way, consists in sub- 
stituting for the sand a sheet of sand-paper tacked over the 
edge of the board. Coarse paper may be used at first, and 
afterwards a finer grade selected for finishing the work. 



PART II 



?>KC 



BENCH WORK. 



116. No work at the bench (9-13) is more important than 
that relating to the location and production of lines. Careless- 
ness or want of skill in this will always be manifest in the fin- 
ished work. To the beginner it may seem monotonous, and 
even hard, to stand at the bench several hours before turning 
a shaving ; but he must understand that a scratch cannot be 
called a line, and that patience and accuracy are the chief 
requisites in skillful manipulation. 

117. Location of Points (14-17). — All measurements must 
begin somewhere. The greater the number of points from which 
to begin, the more chances there are for mistakes. Thus in 



1 Note. — The material, or "stock," needed for the exercises of the 
course should be straight-grained, free from knots, well-seasoned, and 
machine-dressed. A good quality of either white pine or yellow poplar is 
to be preferred. Good work cannot be clone in poor material. 

By easy steps the operations to be performed become more and more 
difficult. The student should not advance to a new exercise until the pre- 
ceding one has been completed in a good, workman-like manner. A fail- 
ure, unless the result of accident, should invariably be followed by another 
trial of the exercise. Otherwise, a careless habit is encouraged. 

The course may appear brief, but experience has demonstrated its com- 
pleteness as a preparation for constructive work in any of the lines to 
which it leads. After the fifteen exercises have been finished, if time 
remains, any ordinary piece of bench work may be undertaken. 



-J2 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

measuring from E to E, Fig. 136, there is one chance for a mis- 
take. If G is located by measuring from E, then in the loca- 
Fis. 13G 



b \b 

SIDE ELEVATION ("FACE A). END ELEVATION. 

tion of G there are two chances for a mistake, — one in locating 
E, another in locating G ; but if G is located by direct meas- 
urement from E, there is, as in the case of E, but one chance 
of error. 

In locating a point by measuring from a point or line already 
fixed, it is necessary to make some kind of mark to indicate 
the distance. Haste in such work frequently results in a mark 
similar to that shown at E, Fig. 136, a " point" through which 
a line may be drawn with ease but with doubtful accuracy. A 
dot from a sharp pencil, as shown at E, Fig. 136, is much 
better ; but if by reason of roughness of surface such a dot is 
too indistinct, two lines meeting each other at an angle may 
be used, G, Fig. 136, the point of juncture indicating the 
required location. 

118. A Jointed Face is a surface that has been made a true 
plane. The necessities of practice so often require jointed 
faces at right angles to an adjoining face, that to many the 
term has come to mean not only a true plane, but such a sur- 
face at right angles to another, from which it is said to have 
been "jointed." 

119. A Working-Face is one selected as a guide for opera- 
tions to be performed on an adjoining face. For accurate work 
the working-face must be jointed. At this face, all measure- 
ments have their beginning, and by it all lines are produced. If 
a piece of material is to receive lines on two opposite sides, as 
A and C, Fig. 136, either B or D may be used as a working- 



BENCH WORK. 73 

face, but not both ; if it is to receive lines on four faces, as A, B, 
C, and D, two of them, as A and B, for example, must be work- 
ing-faces ; if on six faces, three must be working- faces. For 
example, suppose lines are to be made on the surface A, Fig. 
136, from B as a working-face ; those running across the piece, 
as ab, will then be made perpendicular to B, and those running 
lengthwise, as cd, parallel to B. If, on the contrary, the work- 
ing-face is disregarded, and some of the lines are made from 
B and some from D, their truth will depend not only on the 
truth of B and D as individual surfaces, but also upon their 
parallelism, and hence there is a double chance of error. Only 
one face, therefore, should be used from which to do the lining 
for a given surface. If lines are to be made on all four sides, 
as A, B, C, and D, and A and B are the working-faces, all 
lines on A and C can be made from B, and all lines on B and 
D can be made from A. It will be seen, therefore, that in 
making a piece a true square in section, it is necessary to use 
the beam of the square on only two faces. 

EXERCISE No. 1. — Measuring and Lining. 

120. The stock required is if inches thick, 4 inches wide, 
and 4 feet long, or, as usually written, if" x 4" X 4'. Fig. 137 
shows the completed exercise. 1 To aid in following directions, 
it will be well to letter the four faces of the work A, B, C, and 
D, respectively, as indicated by Fig. 137 (End Elevation), and 
to mark two of them, as A and B, working-faces. 

Operations to be performed on Face A, from B as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

121. Spacing with Pencil and Rule (18). — By use of 
pencil and rule, lay off points a, 1" apart along the whole 

1 Fig. 137 is broken in accordance with the principles given in 6. 



74 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



length of the piece, the line of points being kept straight by 
preserving a uniform distance between them and the working- 
face B. This distance may be anything that is convenient, 
and will be sufficiently accurate if determined by the eye. 



Fig. 137 
Scale, 2 = 




i i — a i ' i i ' ■ ' ' ' ' =a 
a a a a a a a a a \a a a a a 

Working Face B. 



(I 



Face A. 

Working Face A. 



Face B. 



a a 



A 



M-J 

END ELEVATION 




Gauged Lines to be J" apart. 




Face D 



g Workin g Face B. g 



V 



16 



FaceC 



-16- 



122. 



Cross-lining with Pencil and Framing-Square (19- 

21). — The points having been located, draw through each a 
line, as ab (Face A), using the framing- square and pencil. 



BENCH WORK. 



75 



While a line is being produced by the outside of the shorter 
leg of the square be, Fig. 138, allow the longer leg ab to drop 
down so that its inside edge may be firmly pressed against the 
working-face, as indicated by the arrows d. When the progress 

Fig. 138 






JT 



Tel |ct b a' 

of the lining causes the leg ab to project beyond the work so 
much as to be imperfectly guided by the working- face, as 
shown at a'b', Fig. 138, its position should be reversed as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline. This method must be observed 
in using any similar tool, a$ the try-square, bevel, etc. 

123. Chalk-Lining (36). — Lay off points on lines ab and 
ad \ u apart, the first point in each case being \" from the 
working- face. Through the points thus located, chalk-lines are 
to be made, as shown by face A, Fig. 137. 

Insert the awl at the first point on the line ab, and drawing 
the cord tight with one hand, apply the chalk with the other, 




beginning at the awl. Care must be taken that the cake of 
chalk is not cut to pieces by the cord. A little practice will 
make it easy to hold the cord under the thumb in such a way 
as to form a small shoulder on the chalk, Fig. 139, which by 



7 6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the friction of the cord will be gradually carried across the face 
of the cake ; another is then formed to take its place. When 
the cord has been chalked, stretch it over the point on the line 



Fig. 140 




ad that corresponds to the point on the line ab at which the 
awl is inserted. Then raise the cord near the middle as shown 
by Fig. 140, and by suddenly releasing it, cause it to " snap " 
on the surface of the work. In snapping, the cord should be 
drawn up vertically, for if drawn afran inclination as shown by 
a, Fig. 141, a wide blurred line will 
be produced. Repeat this operation 
for each of the points, finishing face 
A as shown. Each line should be 
clear and well-defined. Try to make 
each one better than the preceding. 
Never snap more than once be- 
tween the same points. 




g.141 



Operations to be performed on Face B, from A as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

124. Lining with Pencil and Try-Square (22). — Hold 
the beam of the square firmly against the working-face, and, 
using the outside edge of the blade as a guide, continue across 
face B the lines on the working-face which were made by use 
of the framing-square. If the work has been well done, the 
lines will be sharp, straight, and parallel, as shown by ab, cd, 
etc., Face B, Fig. 137. 



BENCH WORK. 



77 



125. Lining with Pencil and Bevel (23-25). — The bevel 
is to be set at an angle of 45 degrees, and the lines ag,fg, 
etc., drawn from the points made by the intersection of the 
lines already drawn and the working- face, Face A, Fig. 137. 
Hold the beam of the bevel firmly against the working-face, 
and use the outside of the blade to guide the pencil. Let the 
beam of the bevel bear firmly on the working-face. 

126. "Gauging" Lines with Pencil and Rule. — These 
lines, as ik, hi, etc., are to be spaced \" apart, as shown by 
Face B. 

Grasp the rule at a proper distance from its end, in the left 
hand, and press the forefinger against the working-face to 
which the rule is perpendicular, as shown by Fig. 142. With 
the right hand apply the pencil to the work, and at the same 
time press it against the end of the rule. In this way, the 
pencil against the rule, and the fingers of the left hand against 
the working-face, move along the length of the work, thus pro- 
ducing a line parallel to 
the working-face. It is 
not necessary to lay off 
points, since the distance 
between the pencil and 
the edge can always be 
known by observing the 
graduations of the rule. 
In making a line, the 
pencil will be more easily 
kept in position if con- 
siderable force is used in pressing it against the rule ; to 
prevent this force from displacing the rule, it must be met 
by a greater force acting in the opposite direction. See arrows 
c and d. 

This is a rapid method of producing lines parallel to the 
working-face, where exactness is not demanded. 




y8 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

Operation to be Performed on Face D from A as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

127. Spacing by Use of Scriber (37) and Rule. — Points 
and lines made with a pencil, while accurate enough for many 
purposes, are too inexact to define the proportions of different 
parts of a joint. Where good fitting of any kind is required, 
the pencil should not be used, but all points and lines be 
made with a scriber. The scriber should be sharp, and should 
make a clearly-defined cut, not a dent. 

Using the rule, then, to determine the distances, substitute 
the scriber for the pencil, and, following the dimensions given 
(Face D, Fig. 137), lay off points along the length of the work 
through which the lines ab, cd, etc., are to be drawn. 

128. Lining with Scriber and Try-Square. — Through the 
points already placed, scribe lines, as ab, cd, etc., with the try- 
square. 

Care must be taken that the advancing edge of the scriber 
is not turned out from the square blade ; in such a case, 
it is likely to " run out " from the square and give a crooked 
line. Neither should the scriber be turned in so much as to 
crowd the square from its position. After a little practice, lines 
can be scribed easily and rapidly. 

129. Lining with Scriber and Bevel. — Set the bevel at an 
angle of 45 degrees and, using it as before, scribe lines from 
the ends of the try-square lines, as shown by be, ad, etc. 

130. Gauge-Lining (32- 
35). The gauge provides the 
most ready means for the ac- 
curate production of lines 
parallel to a working-face. 
As shown in Fig. 143, the 
beam of the gauge B carries 




BENCH WORK. 79 

a steel spur C, which does the marking. B also carries a 
head D, which is adjustable on the beam. 

To use the gauge, adjust the head so that the distance be- 
tween it and the spur C is equal to that between the working- 
face and the required line ; then close the fingers over the 
head and extend the thumb on the beam towards the spur, as 
shown by Fig. 143. Holding the gauge in this manner, bring 
the head against the working- face, move the gauge along the 
work, and the line will 

be produced. To pre- /f^T**' ^^/^ 

vent the spur from stick- __f3L_, C^fc^\ 

ing, the first stroke f^MM\ <\3^\\ 

should make a light line, l\\ fejM\\y v\y - y \ 

which may be strength- ^ i^ J S- fef-l M- - ^— A^j£^fe^i , 
ened by a second, and ^^^^^:~r^>^>J/ -^ ^~^^_ ^JP 
even a third passing of 

the gauge. The depth ot the line in each case is regulated by 
turning the gauge as indicated by the relative position of Y 
and X, Fig. 144. It is obvious that no spacing is necessary 
when this tool is to be used. 

By use of the gauge, lay off 1" apart the lines fh, eg, etc., 
Face D, Fig. 137. 



Operations to be performed on Face C, from B as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

131. The lines on this face are to be used in Exercise No. 3. 
By applying the principles already developed (121, 122) locate 
the lines as shown by the drawing, Face C, Fig. 137. This 
work may be done with the pencil, the lines ab and a'fr' being 
" gauged " by use of the rule (126). The line cd t End Eleva- 
tion, may be made in the same wav. 



8o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 




10 >? 



V 



1 

I 






1 

ii 



i 



I I. 



/ ! 



i / 



/ . 






) 



ii 

1 



! 



i 
ff 



/ f 



III 

! ^ 

I ! 



\ 



L_£ 



r\ 



i 

\ 
\ 



I 

\ I 

\ 
I \ 

w 



BENCH WORK. 



81 



EXERCISE No. 2. 
Practice with Chisel and Gouge (39, 40, and 42) t 

The stock required is £" X 4I" X 8". 

Fig. 145 shows the lines that are needed, all of which are 
produced as explained in the foregoing exercise, except the 
arcs of circles, which must be put in with the dividers (26); 
A and B are working-faces. An end elevation of the finished 
piece is represented by Fig. 146. 

Fig.146 




Fis- 147 



■Mh 



132. To remove the Portion abc, Fig. 145. — It is always 
best, in removing surplus wood with the chisel, to cut across 
the grain, as any attempt to carry the cutting edge along 
the grain is quite sure to result in a splitting action, the 
chisel following the grain of the wood, 
which splits ahead of it, and pre- 
vents the operator from controlling its 
course. In removing the portion abc, 
the work should be held in the vise with 
the working-face A toward the operator. 
A 1" chisel will be found of convenient 
size. Beginning at one end, make suc- 
cessive cuts with the chisel, as shown 
by Fig. 147. Each stroke of the chisel 
should cut almost to the full depth re- 
quired {i.e. remove a shaving from the 
face of nearly the whole triangle abc), 
the thickness of the cutting varying with 
the character of the material and the 



i\ \ 




82 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 




strength of the operator. It is best, however, to go slowly, foi 
the chisel will not be properly guided if the workman's whole 
Fig. 148 strength is required to push it through 

the wood. The surface thus produced 
will not be smooth, but it will be true to 
the line. To smooth it, a wide chisel 
should be used, as shown by Fig. 148, 
and a longitudinal movement imparted 
to it at the same time it is being pushed forward. 

It will be noticed that both chisels are applied to the work 
in such a way as to turn the shaving from the bevel, and not 
from the flat face. This is done that the flat face may be avail- 
able as a guiding surface, which, when kept in contact with the 
solid material back of the cut (see b, Fig. 148), will insure 
straightness in the forward movement of the cutting edge, and, 
consequently, accuracy of work. 



133- 



Trig. 149 



fgffi 



To remove the Portion defg. Fig. 145. — With the 
work flat on the bench, face A 
uppermost, place a f " chisel so 
as to bring its cutting edge in 
the position occupied by the 
line hi, which is about y from 
the end of the work. With the 
mallet, drive the chisel verti- 
cally downward, as indicated by 
<r, Fig. 149. When down to the 
depth of the required cut, the 
chisel should be pushed over to 
the position a, to make room 
for the next cut, after which it 

may be withdrawn and placed 
Section A B. j n positkm again at ^ This 

operation is to be repeated until the whole length of the piece 




BENCH WORK. 83 

has been passed over, making the work appear as indicated, in 
part, by Sec. AB, Fig. 149. The cuttings may then be re- 
moved. The sides of the opening will be even and fairly 
smooth. The distance the chisel is advanced (/) must de- 
pend oh the material, and the depth to which it is driven ; it 
should never be so great as to risk the breaking of the chisel 
when it is moved from position c to a. 

To remove the portion jkon, Fig. 145. — Using the chisel as 
in the last exercise, remove the portion jkhn, and afterwards 
the portion Imon. 

134. To remove the Portion pqr, Fig. 145. — This is done 
with the gouge, which, unlike the chisel, may be used with the 
grain, as indicated by Fig. 150, the 

concaye surface of the work allow- 
ing its individual fibers to give 
greater support to one another in 
resisting a splitting tendency. It 
will be seen that the bevel of the 
gouge is its only guiding surface. This being necessarily short, 
the tool is a difficult one to use. Light cuts should be taken, 
especially when the grain of the wood is not favorable. 

To finish Exercise No. 2. — By use of the chisel round the 
part between the linesy^and no, and also the part between the 
point m and the line ks, to agree with the finished form shown 
by Fig. 1 46, and smooth all chiseled surfaces not already finished. 

EXERCISE No. 3. —Sawing (49-55). 

The stock required is the finished piece from Exercise 
No. 1 ; it is to be cut as indicated by the lining on Face C, 
Fig. 137. 

135. Handling the Saw. — The saw should be grasped 
firmly with the right hand, a better control of it being secured 




8 4 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



by extending the forefinger along the side of the handle. In 
starting a cut, the side of the saw should be pressed against the 
thumb of the left hand, which then acts as a guide, as shown 
by Fig. 151. The saw must not be crowded against the work, 
but, on the contrary, to prevent the teeth from penetrating too 
deeply, its forward movement should be accompanied by a lift- 
ing action of the wrist. The saw should always be moved with 
a long stroke, bringing as many teeth into action as possible. A 
short, jerky movement is at no time necessary or desirable. It 
is good practice for the beginner to keep up the proper motion 
of the saw, while maintaining a very light contact between it 
and the work. Success in this exercise is to be measured by 
uniformity of contact throughout all points of the stroke. 

There are two errors which are likely to be made in sawing : 
first, sawing off the line; and, secondly, sawing at a wrong angle. 



Fig. 151 




Fig. 152 




136. To guide the Saw. — If the saw tends to run off the 
line, the blade may be slightly twisted in the direction it ought 
to take, as shown by Fig. 152. It will immediately respond by 
a change in its course. The correction should be made as 
soon as the error is discovered. 



BENCH WORK. 



85 



153 




Fi s . 154 




137. To correct the Angle of the cut, the saw should be bent, 
as shown by Fig. 153, and at the same time moved vertically, 
as shown by Fig. 154, instead of in the usual direction, which is 
indicated by the dotted line ab in the same figure. 

138. Rip-sawing on the line ab and a'b', Face C, Fig. 137. — 
Start the saw on the lines ab and cd (the latter shown in End 

Elevation). By following 

the first line the proper 

direction of the cut will be 

insured, and by keeping 

on the second the piece 

will be cut square with the 

working -face. The saw 

once started, the truth of 

the angle may be occasion- 
ally tested by the try-square 

applied as shown by Fig. 

155. Attention given to 

this matter at first, will 

soon make the operator 

sufficiently skillful to judge 

the angle accurately 

enough for most work. 
After cutting on the line 

ab, cut also on the line 

a'b'. 
In sawing a piece from 

one end to the other in 
one cut, the saw, in coming out, should not 
be allowed to injure the trestle. This danger 
may be met by slanting the board so that it 
will be supported by one corner, thus leav- 
ing an open space between the trestle and the point where the 
cut will end, as shown by Fig. 156. 



Fig. loo 




ELEVATION. 



86 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



139. Cross-cutting on the lines ef and^, Face C, Fig. 137. 
— Observe the general directions that have already been given. 

When the piece that is being cut is almost divided, there 
is danger that the uncut portion may break and splinter. This 
tendency must be guarded against by properly supporting the 
work, either by the hand or by a suitable arrangement of the 
trestles. 

EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing (66-74). 

The stock required is the pieces resulting from Exercise 
No. 3. 

140. In grasping a plane, there is always shown a disposition 
to place the thumb of the left hand on the right side of the 
plane. This should not be done ; for, as will be seen by Fig. 157,. 
when the plane is drawn back, the arm, by contact with the 
body, becomes stiffened, and the motion of the plane restricted. 
The hand, therefore, should be so turned as to bring the thumb 
on the left side, as shown by Fig. 158. Held in this manner, 
the plane may be easily carried well forward and well back. 



Fig. 157 



Kg.158 




When the surface of the work is large, begin to plane at its 
right-hand end. With a series of easy strokes pass across the 
face of the work, then step forward and take a second series of 



BENCH WORK. 8? 

strokes, and so on until the whole surface has been passed over. 
In the first series of strokes it is necessary to draw the plane off 
the work, as shown by Fig. 159. In doing this, sufficient 
pressure must be exerted in the direc- 
tion of the arrow to overcome any 

tendency to tip, as indicated by the ]_ d/i ^. 

dotted outline ; in the last series of 3~'~~^'~^P*' - 

strokes the wrist may, for the same 

reason, be rested easily on the back of the plane. To make 
the strokes between the ends properly, the plane should be 
lifted so that the shaving may be finished before the forward 
movement of the plane ceases. The plane need not be lifted 
bodily from the work. The natural, slightly-upward move- 
ment of the arm when stretched out, as shown by Fig. 160, 
will accomplish all that is necessary. 

Fig. 1.6.0 




If the plane is allowed full contact with the work on the 
backward stroke, a dulling effect on the cutting edge is pro- 
duced, especially if the work is rough and gritty. Under 
such circumstances, it is better to raise the plane from the 
work entirely, or turn it on its edge, or draw it back in the 
position shown by Fig. 160. On small, clean surfaces, how- 
ever, it is best to disregard this caution, since sharpening 



88 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Kig. 161 



A*» 




takes less time than placing the plane before beginning each 

stroke. 

In planing a narrow surface, for example, the edge of a 
board, difficulty in keeping the plane 
on the work may be overcome by 
grasping it in such a way that the 
fingers of the left hand, while press- 
ing against the face of the plane, may 
maintain a light contact with the 
work, as shown by Fig. 161. 

141. The mouth of a plane sometimes becomes clogged, 
and, as a result, the cutting ceases. This may be caused 
by a dull cutting edge, which scrapes off fibers which it can- 
not cut ; or by the low set of the cap on the iron ; or by a 
bad fit between cap and iron, which allows a shaving to find its 
way between them, thus forming an obstruction to the passage 
of other cuttings. In new planes, the stoppage may be due to 
narrowness of the mouth, which will not allow a thick shaving 
to pass. It should be remembered, however, that narrowness 
of mouth is an element in the production of smooth work, and 
for this reason the opening should be no wider than is abso- 
lutely necessary. 

To preserve the face of the plane, apply occasionally a few 
drops of lubricating oil. 

142. Jointing the sawed edge of the if" X3" X 16" piece 
from Exercise No. 3, to finish at if" X 2|" X 16". Set the 

Fig. 163 
Scale, IJ— l' 



/ 






^B 



X B 



gauge at 2|" and from the working-face B, Fig. 162, gauge 



BENCH WORK. 89 

lines all around the piece, as ef and bg. Fasten the piece in 
the vise with the sawed edge up ; plane nearly to line with the 
jack-plane and finish with the fore-plane. 

143. Planing to a Square each of the four if" x 2" X 16" 
pieces from Exercise No. 3, their finished size to be if" X if" 
X 16". Select a straight face, or, if none is exactly right, cor- 
rect the best and mark it as a working-face. Let this be done 
on each of the four pieces. All old marks are to Fi „ a63 
be planed off and new ones made as needed. Sup- d 



pose Fig. 163 to represent an end of one of the a/%S \c 
pieces, and let A be its working-face. With the b^ 
fore-plane, joint B from A, and mark B as a second 
working-face. Repeat this operation on each of the other 
pieces. Set the gauge at if" (the width to which each side 
is to finish), and from the working-face A gauge a line on B. 
From working-face B joint C to line, and perform this opera- 
tion on each remaining piece. From B as a working-face 
with the gauge set as before, produce lines on A and C, and 
plane D to these lines. This done, the four pieces should be 
of the same size, and true squares in section. 

144. Whenever a series of similar operations is to be per- 
formed on two or more pieces, the method developed by the 
foregoing exercise should always be followed. By carrying all 
the pieces along together, the work will be most easily and 
most rapidly accomplished. 

145. Smooth Surfaces cannot always be produced by a 
plane. The presence of knots or a crooked grain causes the 
work to split in advance of the cutting edge, and a rough sur- 
face results. A sharp plane set to take a fine shaving, will 
do much to remedy this evil, but it cannot be entirely over- 
come. Surfaces, such as a table top or a door panel, which 
are not required to be true, may be made as smooth as possible 




90 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 

• 
with a plane, and the rough spots reduced afterwards by means 

of a hand-scraper, applied as shown by Fig. 164. A surface 
Fio , 1Q4 that is required to be true as well as 

smooth, is best smoothed by a scraper 
mounted like a plane-iron. Such a 
scraper may be made to act uniformly 
over an entire surface, whereas the hand- 
scraper is useful on rough spots only. 
The requirement of both truth and 
smoothness, however, is very unusual. 
True surfaces are necessary about a 
joint, but the parts of a joint are smooth enough as left 
by a plane. On the other hand, a surface that is required 
to be perfectly smooth, is one which is made to be seen, 
and will be sufficiently true if the eye does not detect its 
inaccuracy. 

146. Sand-Papering (103). — The use of sand-paper should 
be confined to the removal of the minute fiber which is raised 
and left by the plane. This fiber is usually invisible, but its 
presence may be detected by comparing a surface newly-planed 
with a similar surface upon which sand-paper has been judi- 
ciously used ; the latter will be much smoother. In applying 
sand-paper, the motion should be " with the grain." To pre- 
vent the destruction of sharp corners or delicate features of any 
sort, the sand-paper should be held about, or fastened to, a 
block of wood corresponding somewhat to the form of the 
work — a flat block for a flat surface, a curved block for a 
curved surface. A piece of thick leather is sometimes used 
instead of the wooden block, and is often more convenient, as 
it may be bent to fit almost any surface. 

Sand-paper will not satisfactorily reduce irregularities in a 
surface, and should never be substituted for the scraper. As 
has been implied, it will simply remove the fiber, and a few 



BENCH WORK. 



91 



strokes arc generally found to be sufficient ; more are likely to 
result in injury. 

EXERCISE No. 5. — Box. 

The stock required is J" X 6" X 24^-" ; it must be lined as 
shown by Fig. 165, and cut into five pieces. The finished box 
is shown by Fig. 166. 

Fig. 165 

Scale, li=l' 





k 






A 


« — 


i 10" — 

3" 


> 


<- -4|"-> 


^ 10- — j > 

1 

6 




1 








1. 
3 






1 

| 




y 






Y 



147. If on each of the five pieces there is a surface 
ciently true for a working-face, it should be marked as 
otherwise, a working-face should 
be made. From the working- 
face joint one edge on each 
piece and mark it as the work- 
ing-edge. Set the gauge at 2f " 
(the inside depth of the box) 
and gauge the side and end 
pieces to this depth, after which 
joint them to line. From the 
working edge, with the try- 
square, scribe on the working- 
face of all the pieces, including 
the bottom, a line about J" from 
one end. With the back-saw 
(56) cut these ends, being care- 
lal to keep on the outside of 
may be held on the 




suffi- 
such 



— -k 



ELEVATION 



the line (148). The 
bench-hook, as shown by Fig. 



work 
167. 



92 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

In starting the cut, the saw may be made to act across the 
angle of the work in the direction of the line ab, but should 
gradually be brought to the position shown, its motion being 
parallel to the face of the work, and its stroke long enough to 
bring every tooth into action. The position of the saw in Fig. 
167, together with the dotted outline, shows a proper range of 
movement. 

ITig. 167 



,h 



<& 



BENCH HO.OK 



The ends, when sawed, should be square with the work- 
ing-face and working-edge. If the cut is a poor one, a 
second may be taken by removing just enough material to 
hold the saw ; if it is only a little " out," it will be best, in 
this case, to pass the error for a time. One end of each hav- 
ing been squared, the pieces may now be brought to length. 
On one of the two pieces which are to form the ends of the 
box, lay off and scribe a line 4" from the squared end. Meas- 
ure the second end piece by the first to insure the same length 
for both, whether the measurement is just 4" or not. Next, on 
one of the two side pieces, 9J" from the squared end, scribe a 
line for sawing and, using the first piece as a measure, lay off a 
similar line on the second side piece and also on the bottom 
piece. All the pieces having been thus lined, they may be cut 
with the back-saw, after which all but the bottom piece will be 
of the dimensions required. 

148. Sawing " outside of the line" may be illustrated as fol- 
lows : if two lines are made on a piece of work just 12" apart, 
and the portion between cut out by sawing exactly on the lines, 



BENCH WORK. 



93 



it is obvious that the piece will be less than 12" long by half 
the width of the saw kerf at each end, or, adding the two de- 
ficiencies, by the width of one kerf, T y or more. 
The appearance of an end when cut outside of a Fl "' 1G 
line will be that shown by Fig. 168. The smooth WtW^^i 
line along the upper surface, represents the cut 
made by the scriber in lining the material ; the rest shows the 
work of the saw. 

149. Nailing (254-256). — The side and end pieces are to 
be nailed, as shown by Fig. 169, three 6-penny casing nails 
being used at each angle. When brought together, the pieces 
must be flush — pretty nearly right will not do. 

Nails, when seen in a certain position, appear equal in width 
throughout their length, A, Fig. 170; while a view at right 
angles to the first, shows them wedge-shaped, B, Fig. 1 70. In 



Fis. 1G9 



^-^-^=^^^=^2^—: 


If! 

6 


V WORKING FACE 







Fig.lTO 
A B 



PLAN. 





WORK 


NG EDGE 






^ 






qs 


_^ ^ — " 


-' ~*^ > 


. ^ 


— 


^- _— 






■ 










" - _- J- 




\ N ^\ 


~* 


OO'^^ 




^* 



ELEVATION. 



starting a nail, the line represented by a must be placed across 
the grain of the wood, so that the point will cut the fibers 
which are displaced. If the line b is placed across the grain, 
a few only of the fibers will be severed, and the others will be 
simply pressed apart by the inclined sides of the nail, an action 
which is quite likely to split the work. 



94 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig.171 



150. Hammer Marks on the work must be avoided. One 
who is skilled in the use of a hammer, can drive a nail slightly 
below the surface of the work without leaving a scar ; but it is 
better to stop driving before the hammer head touches the 
work than to risk damage. 

151. Setting Nails. — When the nail has been driven as 
nearly "home" as possible, "set" it 
until the head is at least y 1 ^" below the 
surface of the work. In applying the 
set, rest the little finger of the left hand 
on the work, as shown by Fig. 171, and 
press the set firmly against it ; there 
will then be no trouble in keeping the 

set on the head of the nail. 

152. Withdrawing Nails. — It sometimes happens that a 
nail, when partially driven, is found to be tending in a wrong 
direction, in which case it must be withdrawn. If the hammer, 
when used for this purpose, is allowed to get into the position 
shown by Fig. 172, it will mar the work, the nail is likely to 
splinter the wood around the hole in coming out, and an 
unnecessary amount of force on the hammer handle is required 
to draw it. A better way is to keep the hammer from contact 
with the work by a block of wood, as a, Fig. 173. The block- 




Fig. IT'S 



iris.173 





ing should be increased in thickness as the nail is withdrawn. 
If the work has been well done, the nail will not be bent. 



BENCH WORK. 



95 



Never attempt to start a nail in a hole from which one has 
been withdrawn. The second nail will either follow the first 
or, prevented from doing this, will take an opposite course no 
nearer right. 



153. Fastening the Box Bottom. — The side and end pieces 
of a box, when nailed together, may not be exactly rectangular, 
although each piece has the required length, and the fastening 
cannot be depended on to retain them with certainty in any 
given form. But when the bottom piece is added, all parts be- 
come fixed. It is, therefore, important that the rest of the box 
be in proper form when the bottom is nailed. 

The bottom piece has been cut the same length as the side 
pieces, and it has a working-edge with which both ends are 
square ; it is a little wider than is necessary, but this can be 
made right in finishing the box. 

Place the bottom piece 
with the working-face inside, 
and the working- edge even 
with the outside edge of one 
of the side pieces, as shown 
by Fig. 174, and drive the 
nails a. Now since the angles 

b are right angles, the end pieces of the box, in order to be 
square with the side, to which the bottom is already nailed, 
must agree with the ends of the bottom piece. If they do not 
agree, but slip past, as shown by Fig. 1 74, slight pressure will 
spring them to place, after which nails may be driven at the 
points c. 

The nails in the bottom of a box must be so placed as to 
avoid those which hold the sides to the ends. No nail can be 
driven at the corners d. 

Finishing the box. — With the smooth-plane take a light cut 
all over the outside, keeping the sides and ends square with the 




9« 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



bottom and with each other. The ends of the box, where the 
end grain of the bottom and side pieces is encountered, present 
the most difficulty. 

154. In planing end grain, the cutting edge must be sharp 
and set to take a fine shaving. If only a little material is to 
be taken off, the movement of the plane should be so limited 
that the cutting edge will not extend beyond the work, two 
cuts being taken in opposite directions, as indicated by A and 
B, Fig. 175. The motion of the plane in both directions, 



Fig.175 



Trig. 1-76 



gg 






J77T77 
mi. 



'■'/ 



'// //// 




ceases near C. If much is to be removed, and it seems best 
to carry the plane the entire length of the surface, a bevel may 
be made which will allow the cutting edge of the plane to leave 
the work gradually, and at a little distance from the edge, as 
shown by Fig. 176, or a piece of waste material may be fixed 
with it in the vise as shown by Fig*. 179. 



EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook (12). 

The stock required is if" X 2f" X 16" from Exercise No. 4. 
It is shown with the necessary lining by Fig. 177, in which 
figure the Plan, face A, represents the working-face, and the 
Elevation, face B, the working-edge. The finished piece is 
shown by Fig. 178. 

155. Lay off the lines ab and cd on face B, Fig. 177. Pro- 
ject ab across face A, as shown by ae, and project cd across 



BENCH WORK. 



97 



face C (not shown) , and from these, project on face D lines 
similar to ab and cd, which are already located on B. Lo- 
cate the point i on lines ab and cd, and also on the similar lines 
of the opposite face D, measuring in each case from the work- 



Fig.177 
Scale Ij/= T 



1\ 



PLAN (FACE A.) 







Fig. 17-8 

Scale, 13-$ = ' 




PLAN. 
— 16—. 



ing-face A, as indicated by the dimensions given. By use of a 
straight-edge, draw ij and ik s and similar lines on the opposite 
face. 

Cut along the lines ij and ik with the rip-saw. There are 
two ways of starting the saw when the material, as at k, is not 
sufficient to hold the blade. First, a saw cut may be made 
along the line cq, and the triangle cqk chiseled out, giving a flat 
surface, cq, on which to begin ; secondly, a block of wood of 
the same breadth with the work may be fastened in the vise 



9 8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



JETig.17'9 



with the latter, as shown by Fig. 1 79, thus, in effect, extending 
the surface ok. In the case of the line 
ik, the second plan is preferable. The 
block A should bear well upon the work 
B dXk. 

The lines if and ik having been sawed, 
cut di and at with the back- saw. With 
the chisel produce the bevels repre- 
sented by mn and op. Bore the hole 
R, Fig. 178, and the piece is fin- 
ished. 




SIHIB1I 



156. With reference to R, it may be said that while an auger- 
bit (89) will cut smoothly when entirely within the material, it 
is sure to splinter when coming out on the face opposite the 
starting point. 

To prevent this, the bit may be used from one side until its 
spur appears on the opposite side, and then withdrawn, and 
started in the opposite direction in the hole left by the spur ; 
or the work may be held firmly to 
another block, as shown by Fig. 180, 
and the bit allowed to pass into the 
block as though the two were one 
piece. 

An auger-bit should cut freely, and advance into the work 
without much pushing on the brace ; if it does not, it is in poor 
condition and should be sharpened. 




EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice (202-203). 

The stock required is if" X if" X 16" from Exercise No. 4 ; 
it is shown with the necessary lining, by Fig. 181. The com- 
pleted piece is shown by Fig. 182. 



BENCH WORK. 



99 



s 



3S|t8 



T 

i 

4- 



157. A and B, Fig. 181, were marked as working faces 
when the piece was planed, and may be used as such in this 
exercise. Midway be- 
tween the two ends on 
face A, locate the line 
a, and from a locate b, 
c, d, and e. Produce 
each of these lines 
across all four faces of 
the piece. Set the 
gauge at j;}" (half of 
if" the width of the 
piece), and from the 
working- face A, gauge 
a line from b on face 
B around the end, and 
back to b on face D ; 
also from line d on face 
B around the opposite 
end to line d on face 
D. These lines are 
shown on face B by 
fg and ij. The joint 
is made by cutting out 
the rectangular pieces 
bhgf and ij'lk. 

i 



158. In cutting a 
splice, both pieces are 
not taken from the same 

face, for the reason that the gauged line may 
not be exactly in the middle, and in that case 
each of the remaining parts- would be more 
than half or less than half the thickness of 



V 



V x 



,b 



L^OfC. 



iOO 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the material, and their united thickness, when put together, 
as in Fig. 182, would be greater or less than the material else- 





Scale, 3=l' 


^~~ 


^si_z9SI§l 



plan. Face A. 



— 9i 



-n 



• c 




^jC^^a 


,yl~2^~- ---^^ sr J^ 


^-it — 




/ £^<£^~^ e! ~ ^*^^~ 7< ~~/J < \C^ 



1> 



3 s 



k ;: : 



t£ 



ELEVATION. FdCC D, 

where. The pieces cut out, therefore, are from opposite faces. 
Then if the gauge line is not in the center of the piece, that is, 
if bhgf is thicker than ijlk, the smaller piece will be taken out on 
one side, and the larger piece on the other ; and the sum of 
the two remaining parts when put together, as in Fig. 182, will 
be equal to the full size of the material. 

159. To cut the pieces, first run the rip-saw down the lines 
gf and ij ; next, with the back-saw, cut the lines bf and Ij ; 
next the lines c and e, being care- 
ful in all of these cuts to keep the 
proper side of the line (148). Finally, 
cut on the line a, and try the pieces 
together as in Fig. 182. If the work 
has been well done, the joint will be 
good. If it is not good, the faults 
may be corrected. The cuts gf and 
ij, if not quite to line, may be brought 
to it by using the chisel as shown by Fig. 147. To facili- 



EVE OF ^_ 
WORKMAN t>" 



Fig. 183 



line;' line 



K^>' 



CHAMFER 



END ELEVATION. 



BEx\CH WORK. 



01 



tate the operation, make chamfers on each side from the 
line to the sawed surface, as shown by Fig. 183, to be used 
instead of the line. Such chamfers present a twofold advan- 
tage ; they are both visible from the same point, and they pre- 
vent splintering on the side on which the chisel comes out. 
The fitting on the line ab, Fig. 182, having been finished, sup- 
pose thaUthe heading-joint ac fits, but 
that bd does not ; or suppose that 



B'ii 



^£ 



mu 



neither fits properly, as shown by Fig. 

184. If the discrepancy is not great, 

the joint may be corrected by use of the chisel, or it may be 

sawed to a fit. 

160. "To saw a Fit," the two pieces should be clamped 
together, or held by hand in the position shown by Fig. 184, 
and the joint at c sawed into. This will make c at least as 
wide as the saw kerf. Without changing the relative position 
of the pieces, turn the work over and saw d, which will also 
become at least as wide as the saw kerf, and, consequently, 
equal to c in so far as the joints have been affected by the saw. 
If in each case the joint is close enough to hold the saw, the 
pieces after sawing will come together perfectly. If one saw- 
ing is insufficient, the pieces may be brought together and 
sawed a second, and even a third time. 

This method of fitting may be widely applied. 

When the joint is perfect, the pieces are to be nailed at each 



Fis-iss 




end with 4-penny casing nails driven obliquely, or "toed," 
as illustrated by Fig. 185. While nailing, rest the pieces A 



102 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



and 



* 



B on the bench C, and, to retain them in position, 
allow one to bear on 

the block Z>, which 
in turn is held by the 
bench-stop. The block 
protects the ends of the 
work, which would be 
mutilated by the bench- 
stop if they were placed 
in direct contact with 
it. 

161. Toeing Nails. 
— The advantage to be 
derived from toeing a 
nail lies in the fact that 
it always " draws " in 
the direction in which 
it is driven. If driven 
as shown by a, Fig. 185, 
it will draw A upon 
B both in a horizontal 
and in a vertical direc- 
tion, and will thus in- 
sure good contact be- 
tween the parts of the 
joint. 

The nails having been 
driven and set, each of 
the four sides may be 
given a final smooth- 
ing by a stroke of the 
plane. 







\ 






-f 

1 


^ 








1 

.1 
1 






1 
1 

1 

i ■ 






-f 




• 


03 




i 






A 
i 






~7V 






1 


5 


<s 










•J 










BENCH WORK. 



I03 



EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 

The stock required is if'x if "x 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
the necessary lines are shown by Fig. 186. The finished piece 
is represented by Fig. 187. 



Fig.187' 
Scale, 3=1' 



I 
I 




PS 

Si 



END. 



ELEVATION. 

162. Let the faces A and B be the working-faces. Lay 
off on face A line a, and from a, the lines b, c, d, <?,/, g, h, and 
i, and project these lines on all four faces of the work. Set the 
bevel at an angle of 45 degrees ; with its beam on A, as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline, lay off on B lines dj\ bk, gj, and 
ik, and repeat these lines on face D. Connect points on both 
B and D, forming lines which on B appear as bj and ij. The 



Fig. 188 



portions marked r are to be removed. 

163. To cut the joint, first use the 
rip-saw on the lines bj and ij, and 
afterwards the back- saw on the short 
oblique lines gj and bk. The back- 
saw can easily be started if, while the 
piece is held in the vise, a stroke is 
given in the direction a, Fig. 188, 
to carry the saw into the work a distance equal to the depth 




104 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



of its teeth, after which it may be turned into the desired di- 
rection b. 

The splayed ends dj and ik may be cut with the work on 
the bench-hook, Fig. 189. By following the directions given in 
the previous exercise the joint may be finished, as shown by 
Fig. 187. 




EXERCISE No. 9. — Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (211-215). 

The stock required is if" X if" X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
it is shown with the necessary lines by Fig. 190. The finished 
piece is shown by Fig. 191. 

164. Let A and B represent the two working- faces. From 
one end of the piece, on face A, lay off line a, and from a, lay off 
lines b, c, and d. Measure carefully the width of the piece on 
line d, face A, and lay off one-half of the same on each side of 
the line b, and through the points thus fixed make lines e and/. 
Project the lines a, c, and d on all four faces of the piece, and the 
lines e and / on B and D, the two faces adjoining A. Set the 
gauge at i", and from face A, gauge on B the line gh and a 
similar line on the opposite face D. Gauge the line ij and 
carry it around the end of the work to the line d on face D. 
Set another gauge at rj" (£" + f ", the width of the mortise and 
of the tenon), and gauge between the same lines as before, pro- 



BENCH WORK. 



I05 



ducing g'/i', i'f 



etc. The mortise and the tenon are formed 
by cutting out the por- 



tions marked r. 

The method of "lay- 
ing off" the width of the 
mortise and the tenon 
is to be especially ob- 
served. The distance 
between the two lines 
which define the width 
of the mortise, and those 
which define the width 
of the tenon, being 
equal to the difference 
in the setting of the two 
gauges, must be the 
same. The result, as 
far as the mortise and 
tenon are concerned, 
would not be different 
if the piece containing 
the mortise were twice 
as thick as that carrying 
the tenon. It is best to 
use two gauges to avoid 
the mistakes which might 
arise from changing a 
single one. Then, if it 
should be found neces- 
sary to use them after 
the first lining, precisely 
the same measurements 
will be obtained. This 
process can be short- 



S 



s 



fc 



il 



bo 






JT 



^ 



a? 9 



a 



i^_ 



o6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



ened by using a mortise-gauge (33), which makes both lines at 
the same time. 

165. Cutting the Mortise. — It will be remembered that the 
lines which appear on face B, Fig. 190, have their counterparts 



Fig. 191 

Scale, 3=1 




\\ 



n 



teR 



SIDE. END ? 

on the opposite face D. To cut the mortise, select a chisel 
having a width as nearly as possible equal to the space between 
the gauge lines, and, beginning on face B, near the middle of 
the mortise, advance toward one end, as shown by Fig. 149. 
The end of the mortise having been reached, commence at the 
starting point and advance to the other end. Always loosen 
the chisel by a backward movement of the handle ; a movement 
in the opposite direction would injure the ends of the mortise. 
(See Fig. 149.) After the first few cuts, each deeper than the 
preceding, the chisel can easily be made to penetrate an inch 
or more, in pine or poplar. If the depth is equal to half the 
thickness of the work, no attention need be given to the chips. 
One side of the mortise having been cut in this manner, turn 
the work over and repeat the operation on face D } the chisel 



BENCH WORK. 



107 



being driven down to meet the opening made from the first side. 
After the cutting is finished, the chips may be dug out with a 
chisel or driven through by use of a wooden plug. Never try 
to drive them through by using the chisel with its cutting edge 
parallel to the grain, as such use 
is very likely to split the work. 
The chips having been re- 
moved, the truth of the mortise 
may be tested by using the flat 
side of the chisel as a straight- 
edge, as shown by Fig. 192. 
The sides of the finished mortise 
should agree with the chisel, as 

at a. Compare a with b. Remember that at least one-half the 
thickness of the line should remain on the work. 




166. The Tenon may next be cut by using the back-saw, 
both across the grain and with it. The sawing, if to line, leaves 
nothing to be done except the pointing of the tenon ; this is 
accomplished by a stroke of 
the chisel on each side, which 
makes it appear as shown by 



Fi g . 193 



Fig. 193. The pointing is 
necessary, because a square- 
ended, tight-fitting tenon, if 
driven to place, will splinter 
the sides of the mortise. The 
length of the tenon is suffi- 
cient to make it project be- 
yond the mortise a distance 
more than equal to the part 

pointed. After the fitting has been done, the projecting part is 
cut off. 

When both the mortise and tenon are finished, cut the piece 







— — ► 


PLAN. 


< ^=rz=^n 


H- 2^>=^|| 


\- 


1-^^11 



ELEVATION. 



io8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



on the line c, Fig. 190, and try the tenon in the mortise. It 
should enter at a light-driving fit. If the shoulders of the tenon 
do not make a good joint with the cheeks of the mortise, that 
is, if the joint at S, Fig. 191, is not good, it may be sawed to a 
fit, as in the case of the splice. When all is satisfactory, bore 
the pin hole, insert the pin, cut off the projecting portion of the 
tenon and of the pin, and take a light shaving from those sur- 
faces on which a plane may be used. 

167. To Make a Pin (249). — Select a piece of straight- 
grained material, in this case 4" or 5" long, and, by use of the 
chisel, reduce it in section to a square whose side is slightly 
greater than the diameter of the hole it is to fit. Then take off 
the corners, making it an octagon in section, and point one 

Fig. 194 




195 



end. All this will be best accomplished if the piece is held 
by the bench-hook, as indicated by Fig. 194. 

168. Drawboring is a term applied to a method of locating 

pin holes so as to make 
the pin draw the tenon 
into the mortise. Fig. 
195 shows the relative 
position of the holes be- 
fore the pin is inserted. 
It is evident that a 
tight-fitting pin will have 
a tendency to make the holes in the mortise and tenon 
coincide, and thus draw the two pieces together. The holes 




BENCH WORK. 



109 



may be located on the mortise and tenon by direct measure- 
ment ; or the cheeks of the mortise may be bored through and 



f ; 



I 

L 

%\ 
J- 

cqes ! 






h 



I 



t 



^ 



I 
I 

i 



H . 



i? 9 



the tenon inserted, and marked 

by putting the bit into the hole 

already bored and forcing its 5 

point against the tenon. The p 

tenon may then be withdrawn 

and bored, the point of the bit being placed a little nearer the 

shoulder of the tenon than the mark. 



no 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



The practice of drawboring is not to be commended, and, 
if indulged in at all, great care and discretion must be exer- 
cised. In many cases, it puts a strain on the joint which is 
nearly equal to its maximum resistance, and but little strength 
is left to do the work for which the joint is made. Frequently, 
the mortise or tenon is split and rendered practically useless. 

EXERCISE No. 10. 




Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (240-245). 

The stock required is if" X if" X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 

it is shown with the ne- 
cessary lining by Fig. 
196. The finished piece 
is represented by Fig. 
197. 

169. The lining dif- 
fers from that of the 
preceding exercise in 
the following respects : 
the position of the line 
b is changed as indi- 
cated by the dimension 
figures, and the position 
of lines e and f, which 
extend around the piece, 
is changed to corre- 
spond ; the mortise is 
made longer on face B 
than on face D, giv- 
elevation. m g ne oblique end, 

as indicated by the dotted line i, face A. 




BENCH WORK. Ill 

As regards the tenon, the line g is added at a distance from 
d equal to the thickness of the piece on the line b, face A ; 
the point h is located on face A, and on the opposite face C, 
and the line gh drawn on both faces. The mortise r' is to be 
cut as in the preceding exercise, and one end made oblique as 
indicated by the figure. 

To form the tenon the portions marked r are to be removed. 
First, beginning at g, cut along the oblique line gh ; then, be- 
ginning at k, the two lines kj ; and, finally, define the shoulders 
of the tenon by cutting on the line d. This order will save all 
the lines as long as they are needed. 

170. A study of the finished piece will show that the tenon 
is inserted from the face D, and pushed over so that the splayed 
edge of the tenon, gh, bears on the splayed end of the mortise, 
i, leaving an open space at the other end of the mortise to be 
filled by the key. See Fig. 197. 

The key should be planed from a piece 5" or 6" long. It 
should be uniform in width and nearly so in thickness, there 
being but a slight taper near the end which is to be driven in 
advance ; this end should be pointed like a tenon. It is best 
to drive the key from the inside in the direction indicated by 
the arrow, Fig. 197. 

The piece is to be finished in accordance with the appear- 
ance and dimensions shown by Fig. 197. 

EXERCISE No. 11. — Plain Dovetail. 

The stock required is two pieces, each ■£■" X 3f " X 4", 
edges jointed parallel, and one end squared. (The material 
may be worked up as one piece -J" X 3}" X 8", which, after 
being planed to width, may be cut in two with the back-saw, 
thus giving the squared ends required.) The working- faces 
used in preparing the material may also be used in laying off 
the lines. To avoid confusion one piece will be called X and 



112 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the other Y. Fig. 198 shows the lining necessary for X and P 
respectively. The finished joint is shown by Fig. 199. 



Fig. 198 
Scale, 3=l' 



e 
X 


r ) 


%± 




>• 


X 


* — i — > 

r 


v* — 


V 




r 





ELEVATION (FACE A.) 



D 

END 



r 



% 



171. Lay off on all four faces of each piece, J" from the 
squared end, the line ab, Fig. 198. 
Fasten X in the vise, and on its 
squared end lay off lines as g/i, 
Fig. 198. Remove the piece from 
the vise, and with the bevel set 
"1 to 4" (29), project on the 
faces A and C oblique lines as 
ef The portions which are to be 
removed to form the mortises, are 
marked r. Put the piece in the 
vise again, and with the back- saw 
cut down the oblique lines as ef. 
With a chisel, used as in cutting 
an ordinary mortise, remove the 
material between the lines. If 
preferred, part of it can be re- 
moved by boring a hole as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline. The 
hole will make the chiseling easier, 
but in so small a piece of work it is doubtful whether there is 
anything gained. The piece X having been finished, fasten V 
in the vise, working-end up and working-face outward. Place 
the working- face of X on the working-end of Y, as shown by 
Fig. 200, taking care that the line ab on X is in the same line 
with the working- face of K Holding the work in this position, 
and guided by the mortises in X, scribe on the end of Y the 
oblique lines as-gh, Fig. 198. Remove Y from the vise, and 
with the beam of the square on the working-end, project to ab 
lines as ef from the extremities of the oblique lines just made. 
The portions marked r and r 1 are to be removed to form the 



T 



D 

END. 



ELEVATION (FACE C.) 



BENCH WORK. 



113 



"pins." Those on the outside marked r 1 may be removed 
entirely with the saw; those on the inside (;-), partly with the 
chisel, as in the case of the mortises in the piece X. 



172. 

Fig. 

Scale, 




ELEVATION (B.) 



The joint ought to go together by light driving, and 

be perfectly square on 
the inside between 
the working-faces. If 
it is found to be satis- 
factory, take it apart, 
apply a light coating 
of glue, and drive to- 
gether again. When 
the glue is hard, the 
joint may be smoothed and squared, and 
the ends of the pieces cut to the dimen- 
sions shown in Fig. 199. 

173. It will be seen that one part of 
the joint is made, and the second part is 
then made to fit the first ; hence, the 
proportions of the first part need not be 
determined with great exactness. The skilled 
bench-worker usually proceeds as follows : on 
the piece X (if there are several pieces, X, he 
treats them all at the same time) he lays off 
the lines ab and cross-lines as gh, the latter 
without measuring, and then saws obliquely 
without the use of lines as ef\ on Yhe lays off 
the lines ab and oblique lines as gh, and saws without making 
lines as ef. In this way the joint is soon made, and, al- 
though not perfectly symmetrical, it may be well-formed and 
well-fitted. 




ELEVATION (A.) 




WORKING FACE"^ 



H4 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap, or Drawer, Dovetail. 



The stock required is one piece 

Fig. 201 

Scale, 8 = l' 




X 3! " X 4" and one 
piece i" x 3f" X 4"^ 
edges jointed parallel 
and one end of each 
squared. The finished 
piece is shown by Fig. 
201. It will be seen 
that the piece X does 
not extend across the 
full thickness of the 
piece Y, and, consequently, the end grain 
does not ap- 
pear in Eleva- 
tion B, Fig. 
201. 




ELEVATION (FACE BJ 



Fig. 202 

Scale,, a — 1' 



PLAN (FACE D.) 1 



ELEVATION "(FACE A.) 174* O* 1 ■*> 



Fig. 202, scribe the line ab, i" 
(the thickness of X) from the 
working- end, and continue it 
across the working-edges. Set a 
gauge at f ", and from the work- 
ing-face A gauge the line cd on 
the working-end, and extend it on 
the edges until it meets the ex- 
tended line ab, as shown by face 
D, Fig. 202. From the working- 
end of X, with the same gauge, 
make the line ab on the two faces 
A and C. Produce the remaining 
lines on X, cut the mortises, and 
lay off Y by X, as in the last 
exercise. 



ELEVATION (FACE A.) 




ELEVATION (FACE A.) 



BENCH WORK. 



"5 



In cutting out around the pins (F), the delicacy of the work 
does not demand the most delicate chisel, but one as large as 
is convenient should be used. Finish the joint to the dimen- 
sions given by Fig. 201. 



EXERCISE No. 13. — Blind Dovetail. 

The stock required 
is two pieces, each 
|" X 3J" X 4" edges 
jointed parallel and 
one end squared. The 
finished joint is shown 
by Fig. 203. The 
elevation (face e.) dovetail is wholly with- 
in the square abed, and, consequently, no 
end grain shows on any face. 

175. With the square, lay off on the 
working- faces and two edges of each piece 
of material, Fig. 204, the lines ba, ai, and 

elevation ^ace a.) cd, dk, and from the working-face A gauge 

on the ends of each piece the line ef. 





Fig. '-2 0-4 

c b 



Kig. i2 0,~i 
Scale, 8 = 1 



£ 



PLAN (FACE D.) 



A- 



ELEVATION (FACE A.) END 



«0 



u6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



TTigi.S06 
Scale,, a— a' 





m 




> 


r 


h 


> x 


r 

r 

m 





gDJ-b 



A 



C 



Cut both pieces as shown by Fig. 205. Taking one of the 
pieces, which will be called X, space 1 and lay off on the reduced 
end surface lines as op, Fig. 206, using the try-square blade 
as indicated by the dotted outline. Next, produce oblique 

lines as gh, shown in the same 
figure, and cut the mortises 
marked r. 

With Y in the vise apply X, 
in which the mortises have al- 
ready been cut, as shown by 
Fig. 207, so that points may be 
located along the exterior angle 
e' of Y, corresponding to the 
openings in X. Project these 
points (shown on line e'f, Fig. 
208) from the exterior angle e', 
to the interior angle b\ Fig. 
207. Next apply X to Y, as 
shown by Fig. 209 ; from this 
position the points shown on 
the line a'i', Fig. 208, can be 
secured along the angle a'. 
These points, when connected, 
will give lines as gh, Y, Fig. 206. 
From these lines, project on the 
working-face lines as if, down 
to the line tfk 1 . Cut out the 
portions marked r, and the dovetail is finished. It now re- 
mains to make a miter-joint between the two rectangular pro- 
jections on X and Y. Set the bevel at a miter (an angle of 45 



ELEVATION (FACE AJ 



V 

END. 



d a' 


Y 

■3 


r 
r 


i 




r 




r 



k' V 

ELEVATION (FACE A.) 



c 


£> P 


6 


Q 


r 




Je* 


J: 

V 




\ 


V/ 


n 



1 No dimensions are given for locating the lines similar to op, X, Fig. 
206. They can be found by measuring the drawing, which, as indicated by 
the scale, is one-fourth the size of the piece it represents. 



BENCH WORK. 



117 



degrees) and scribe the dotted line e, Fig. 205, on each piece ; 
then cut to line with a chisel. When the joint has been fitted, 
glue, and finish to dimensions. 



I^ig. 207 
*-* 


Fi 


S-S08 
a' e'b' 


"Fig. 209 








6 


R-f - 






■ ■ 




c 


L_d 


n 






b' 
c' 


X 


a' r 




Y 






' ■ 




1 


VIA 


Y 



I' fin' 



176. If, instead of cutting out the first and last space of Y, 
one-half only is cut out, as shown by Fig. 210, 
the dividing line being on a miter, and, if the Fig - ai ° 

outside portions of X, m, m, Fig. 206, are cut / 
away to a miter to correspond, the joint will 
appear as a plain miter-joint, instead of that shown 
Fig. 203. 



by 



EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel (246-248). 

177. Fig. 211 shows a small panel door. The frame is made 
up of stiles and rails, which are fastened together by mortise-and- 
tenon joints ; the spaces within the frame are filled by panels. 
The lower panel is simply a thin board screwed to the back of 
the frame. The upper panel is composed of narrow strips, which 
are inserted in a groove made in the frame for their reception. 
The front of the frame, around the lower panel, is chamfered, 
and around the upper panel is beaded. It is the purpose of 
this exercise to construct that portion of the door included 
within the rectangle abdc. 



iS 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 



egg" 



:ll 



PANEl 




ELEVATION. 

sions as follows : for the stile, 
1 4" X 2 2"" X 9" ; for the rail, 
i|" X 4" X 6i" ) and for the 
panel j" X 5" X s£". The 
finished work is shown by 
Fig. 212. 





ELEVATION. 



178. The mortise-and-tenon joint between the stile and rail, 
both in the size and position of its parts, is shown by Fig. 213. 
The width of the mortise and the tenon should be equal to the 
width of the f " chisel. 1 It will be noticed that the lines are 
so placed as to make the stile extend beyond the lower edge of 
the rail. This extension, or " horn," as it is called, is for the 



1 The nominal width of a chisel does not always agree with its actuaj 
width. 



BENCH WORK. 



19 



purpose of re-enforcing the end of the mortise during the fit- 
ting, — a recourse which must always be had when the mortise 
in the finished work closely approaches the end of the material. 
After all the jointing has been done, the horns may be cut off. 
Having laid off the necessary lines for cutting the mortise and 
the tenon, very light lines, as cd and c'd', Fig. 213, should be 
made on both stile and rail to guide in cutting the chamfers. 



Scale, 3=l' 






— c"«* 


A 


s -w 


A-^ 




d 




1 ! 


i — 2j"— -i.i^i 



SIDE OF RAIL. 




SIDE OF ST I LE 



EDGE ^4 OF STI LE 



Cut and fit the mortise and tenon, and then make both 
chamfers, as shown in the finished piece, Fig. 212. 

179. Short chamfers (222, 223) like these are best cut by 
use of the chisel, a spokeshave sometimes being used in finishing. 

Long chamfers may be cut rapidly by the drawing-knife, 
which may be followed by the smooth-plane. 

180. Before putting the joint together, enlarge the outside 
.end of each mortise, as shown by a and b, Fig. 213, to make 
room for the wedges c, c, which, after the joint has been 



120 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

driven together, are to be dipped in glue and driven as 
indicated. This method of wedging forms a very strong 
joint (250, 251). 

181. Round the edge of the panel on the bottom and side, 
as shown by a, Fig. 212, and fasten it to the back of the 
frame by two 1" No. 8 screws — one in the rail, and one, b, 
in the stile (258). 

182. In inserting screws, the outside piece (in this case the 
panel) must be bored for each screw. The hole should be 
sufficiently large to allow the screw to pass through easily ; and, 
if the wood is hard, it must be enlarged at the top, or " coun- 
terbored," to receive the head of the screw. The piece in 
which the screw holds (in this case the frame), if of soft wood, 
need not be bored unless there is danger that it may split, in 
which case a hole should be made, in diameter about two-thirds 
that of the screw. The necessity for a hole in hard wood 
depends largely on the proportions of the screw. A short, 
large-wired screw will stand almost any service, while a long 
slender one will frequently be twisted or broken under the 
strain necessary to drive it into wood which is only moder- 
ately hard. 

Judgment must determine when the screw is driven suf- 
ficiently. The head must bed well into the wood ; but 
there is danger that it may be forced so far as to " strip " 
the thread, and that, as a consequence, the screw will not 
hold (96,98). 

Never allow the screw- driver to slip from the slot of the 
screw while the latter is being driven. 

183. Brad-awls are useful in preparing the way for small 
screws. The cutting edge should always be placed across the 
grain so that the fibers will be cut, and not simply pressed apart 
to close up again when the tool is withdrawn. The difference 



BENCH WORK. 



121 



in effect may be seen by comparing, Fig. 214, A, which shows 
a proper action, with B. 

Fig. 314 







EXERCISE No. 15. — Paneling. 

This exercise consists in making that portion of the panel 
door, Fig. 211, included within the rectangle efgh. 



Fig. 2i 5 
Scale, 3' l' 




7777 



122 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 
sions as follows: stile i-J-" x 2*" x 9"; rail i£" x 2^" x 6£"; 
panel strip J" x if" X 18". The completed exercise is shown 
by Fig. 215. 

184. In considering the joint between the stile and rail as 
shown by Fig. 216, three new features will be observed; the 
groove, or " plow," which is to receive the panel, as shown at 
a, Fig. 215 ; the beads /,/', and the mitered corner cd, which 
allows the parts to be plowed and beaded as shown, without 
affecting the mortise-and-tenon joint. 

Follow the dimensions, and line for the mortise and tenon as 
in the preceding exercises, supposing the rail to be of the form 
indicated by the dotted outline djc\ Fig. 2 1 6, and the stile to 
be of the form indicated by efd. This done, add the lines ec, 

Fig. 216 
Scale, %*>£ 



h- - 




* 1\ i 





c- 


t 




"£j 


\— 


-—\--rr— 



j d' 





j ( 


1 - , 


(1 


* 


1 a i 


\* 




t 


-»> 


1 



ELEVATION. 



cd, and c'd, by means of gauge and bevel. Cut the mortise 
and the tenon, after which plow the groove a. 



BENCH WORK. 



123 



185. No special direction can be given for using the plow 
(85), except that it is to be used from the working-edge; but 
it will be safe to practice with it on a piece of waste material 
before applying it to the work. 



Scale, 3=l' 




186. Next, the beads /,/, Fig. 215, are to be formed on the 
inside edge of both rail and stile, that is, along the edges 
marked b, Fig. 216. What has already been said regarding 
the use of the plow, may also be said of the beading-plane 

(84). 

The mitered corners are now to be formed by cutting with 
the back-saw to lines already made, and then the joint between 
stile and rail, fitted and wedged as 
in Exercise No. 14. 

The frame having been made 
ready, attention may be given to 
the panel. The panel strip, al- 
ready jointed, must be "matched" 
by forming the tongue b and the 
groove a, Fig. 217. This opera- 
tion brings into use the J" match- 
ing-planes (82), which should first 
be tried on a piece of waste ma- 
terial. The bead c, Fig. 217, is 



Fig. 218 






Scale, 3 = 1 




k \* 






i "^ x 




ij 


\ "^v^ 






IX/ 1 




1 





to be made with a ^" beading- 



„_4 

SIDE. 



plane. 

Cut the panel strip into lengths suitable for forming the 
complete panel, Fig. 218, using either the bevel or the miter- 



124 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



box in obtaining the angle of the ends. The fitting of the 
pieces one to another will be most easily done if they are cut 
in order, as a, b, c, etc. 

187. In using the miter-box, Fig. 219, the work a, while 
resting on the bottom of the box, must be pressed against the 
side b, in which position, the saw, guided by the box as shown, 
will cut the piece at a miter. The opposite guide cc may be 
used in the same manner. By using d the work will be cut off 




square. To hold the pieces of the panel together, and to fasten 
the panel to the frame, light brads may be inserted in the 
oblique ends of the panel strips shown at b, Fig. 215, or, 
what is, perhaps, better, glue may be used. If the door were 
complete, as shown by Fig. 211, the panel would have perfect 
support in the frame. 



PART III. 

ELEMENTS OF WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 
CARPENTRY. 1 

1 88. It is the work of the carpenter to raise and inclose 
the frame of a building, to construct its floors and roofs, and 
to complete all parts which give stability to the structure ; the 
joiner makes the doors and windows, erects the stairs, and 
provides such interior woodwork as will finish the building as 
a habitation. A single mechanic may perform almost every 
kind of work required in the construction of a building, thus 
eliminating this distinction of trades ; but for convenience in 
classification we may imagine the work of the carpenter and 
that of the joiner to be quite distinct. 

It will be understood that neither carpentry nor joinery is 
confined to house-building. While all bench work may properly 
be classed as joinery, it involves forms and principles that are 
the logical outgrowth of carpentry. For this reason, in the 
following consideration of joints, there are presented, first, 
those belonging to carpentry, which will include such as are 
used in uniting timbers, as in a frame for a building ; and, 
secondly, those belonging to joinery, which will include such 

1 Tredgold's "Carpentry," and "Notes on Building Construction," 
published by Rivingtons, have furnished many of the facts presented 
under Carpentry and under Joinery. 



126 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



as are used in joining small planks or boards. This classifica- 
tion cannot be rigidly adhered to, but it will serve the purpose 
of the following pages. 

189. Any two timbers may be united in the direction of 
their length, or they may be united at an angle. 

Timbers united in the direction of their length are usually 
subject to compressional stress, which has a tendency to reduce 



Fig. 220 



Fig.221 



J 



their length, as indicated by Fig. 220; or tensional stress, 
which has a tendency to increase their length, Fig. 221 ; or 
transverse stress, which has a tendency to bend them, Fig. 222 ; 
or to two of these stresses at the same time. 

190. A Timber subjected to transverse stress must always 
bend. The fibers forming that surface which is convex or has a 
tendency to become so (as the lower surface, A, Fig. 222) will 
be subject to tensional strain, while the fibers forming the 
opposite surface will be brought under compressional strain 
This is shown by Fig. 223, A representing a straight timber, 



Fig. 222 
C 



\A 



Fig. 223 




and B the same timber bent. It follows, then, that somewhere 
between the compressed surface and the extended surface there 
will be a line which is subject to neither compressional nor 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 127 

tensional strain ; such a line is called the neutral axis of 
a timber, and will be located with sufficient accuracy for 
the purposes of this work, if drawn midway between the 
upper and lower surfaces, as shown by the dotted line. CD, 
Fig. 223. 

In the timber that has been forced into a curved form, 
Fig. 223, the fibers within the neutral axis are under no strain 
excepting that required to hold the compressed portion to the 
extended portion; but the conditions are found to change 
rapidly as the examination extends to fibers more and more 
remote from this axis. In other words, the strength of such 
a timber increases rapidly as its depth increases. For example, 
if Fig. 222 represents a 2" x 4" timber (2" wide and 4" deep) 
supported at B, B, and capable of sustaining 200 pounds at C, 
it can be shown that, if the depth is doubled, leaving the width 
the same, by substituting a 2" x 8" timber, it will sustain four 
times the original load, or 800 pounds ; while if the width is 
doubled, leaving the depth the same, by substituting a 4" x 4" 
timber, it will sustain only twice the original load, or 400 
pounds. The law is that the strength of timbers subject to 
transverse stress varies as the width and as the square of 
the depth. 1 

191. Rankine has given five principles to be observed in 
designing joints and fastenings. They are as follows : — 

1 . "To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to 
weaken the pieces of timber that they connect as little as 
possible." 

1 By what has been given it will be seen that in any body of material 
the portions most affected in resisting transverse stresses are those lying 
near the upper and lower surfaces (Fig. 222). In view of this fact, parts 
that are to receive a transverse stress, especially if of iron, are, in 
important structures, formed to present a large amount of material 
near these surfaces. A railroad rail or an I-beam are simple illustra- 
tions ; a bridge truss is an elaboration of this principle. 



128 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

2. "To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly 
as possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to 
transmit." 

3. "To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure 
which it has to bear, so that the timber may be safe against 
injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and 
to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately, in order 
to distribute the stress uniformly." 

4. "To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of 
equal strength with the pieces which they connect." 

5. "To place the fastenings in each piece of timber so that 
there shall be sufficient resistance to the giving way of the 
joint by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way through 
the timber." 

Complicated forms of joints are likely to violate Rule 3. 

Joints connecting Timbers in the Direction of their 
Length. 

192. A Lapped Joint, shown by Fig. 224, fastened either 
by straps A or bolts B, is clumsy, but very strong. 

193. A Fished Joint in its simplest form is shown by 
Fig. 225, and is so called because of the two pieces marked A 
which are known as fish-pieces or fish-plates. 

Fig. 224 Fig.225 

ABA A 

1 -~,-u--ft-_.-ft. 



it- m^M 



1 l ilji 5 igr Ji^ilu ^ 



Fish-pieces may be of either wood or iron, and may be 
employed to form the fished joint shown in Fig. 225, or applied 
to more complicated joints to increase their strength. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 1 29 

When subject to compressional stress a fished joint should 
have four plates, one on each face. When subject to tensional 
stress the plates, if of iron, may be indented, A, Fig. 226 ; or, 
if of hard wood, the ends may be tabled, B, Fig. 226, or keys 
inserted as shown by A and B, Fig. 227. Other things being 



Fis- 226 Fig.227 



m 



^3- 




equal, if the number of keys is doubled, the thickness of each 
may be diminished one-half without reducing the strength of 
the joint, since the total amount of abutting surface will remain 
the same. 

For transverse stress the fish-pieces should be on the sides 
of the joint, as shown by Fig. 228. 

The bolts used for securing fish- 
pieces, or employed as fastenings 
for any joint, should be placed 
checker-wise, Fig. 228, so that no 
two will cut the same cross-section. 

Fished joints are often used in 
heavy construction. By a suitable proportion of parts the joint 
can be made almost as strong as the timbers it connects. 

194. Scarfed Joints are those in which the two timbers 
united are so cut and fitted as to make the joint uniform in 
size with the timbers. In determining the form of any scarf, 
the principles already given (191) should be adhered to as 



Note. — The student should observe carefully the position of the 
lines in the following representations of joints, so that he may clearly 
see the reasons for the different methods of construction. He should 
first look for the abutting surfaces, and then note their relation to the 
rest of the joint. 



130 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



closely as possible. Some scarfs by their form are self-sustain- 
ing, but compared with the timbers they unite, are weak, and 
are seldom used unless strengthened by bolts, or by bolts and 
fish-pieces. 

195. A scarfed joint for resisting compression is shown in 
its simplest form by Fig. 229. When strengthened by bolts 
and fish-pieces it forms an exceedingly good joint. 



Fig. 229 



Fig. 23 O 



196. A scarfed joint for resisting tension is shown by 
Fig. 230. The key A supplies the abutting surface to receive 
the strain tending to open the joint ; in thickness it is equal to 

Fig. 231 



one-third that of the timber. In practice this joint is not often 
employed without fish-pieces. Fig. 231 shows a modification 
of Fig. 235 which will serve excellently for tensional stress. 

197. A scarfed joint for resisting tra?isverse stresses is sub- 
ject to compressional stress in its upper portion, and to ten- 
sional stress in its lower portion (190), and must, therefore, 

Fig. 232 




embody forms adapted to resisting both, as shown by Fig. 232. 
A single fish-piece is usually added to the lower side of the joint. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION, 



131 



198. A scarfed joint for resisting tension and compression 
may be made as shown by Fig. 233 ; or, less complicated as 
shown by Fig. 234 ; or, more secure as shown by Fig. 235. 



Fig.23 3 



Fig. 234 



g^ fe-^-TC ^^ 



199. A scarfed joint for resisting tension and tranverse 
stress is sometimes made as illustrated by Fig. 236 ; but this 



Fig. 335 



Fig. S3 6 



m 



r " ' '" " _J__' ' '■■ — _^_ ' ' 



s 



mmm m 



d 



form is not so good as the joint shown by Fig. 228, if in the 
latter case the fish-pieces are indented. 



Joints connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 

200. Halving", Fig. 237, forms a very simple joint, and 
when well fastened, a strong one. It is frequently employed. 



Fig. 237' 



ra 



ggir^ 



ELEVATION. 



Fig. S3 8 



1 


! 


~A= g 


fH 


PLAN. 

4* 


A 


i Sfest 


V— 

■ 


ELEVATION. 



Fig.23 9 



*Sl 












ELEVATION. 



132 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

Beveled-halving, Fig. 238, is sometimes resorted to with the 
view of allowing the load imposed upon A in the direction of 
the arrow, to hold the joint together. Under ordinary circum- 
stances this joint is likely to prove weak, because of a lack of 
material at the shoulder near the letter A. 

201. Notching. — In placing several timbers upon another 
which is to support them, in the manner represented by Fig. 239, 
it is usually desired that the tops of the supported timbers be 
uniform in height. This would not be accomplished by simply 
placing them in a row, because timbers of the same nominal 
size vary in their breadth and depth. The ends of the deeper 

Fig. 2-tO Fig. 241 




ones must therefore be cut or " notched," as shown by Fig. 239, 
to make them agree in depth with the lightest timber of all. 
Properly speaking, this is a preparation for the bearing of one 
timber on another, and not a joint ; but if the end of the sup- 
ported timber is allowed to project, as represented by Fig. 240, 
a true joint is made. 

Double-notching requires a notch in both timbers, Fig. 241. 

202. Cogging is represented by Fig. 242. It has some 
advantage over notching in point of strength, inasmuch as the 
timber B has its full depth over its support. The " cog " A 
makes the union between the two timbers, as a joint, quite as 
satisfactory as the double notch. 

If the surrounding conditions require it, the cog may be 
formed near one edge, instead of in the middle of the tim- 
ber as shown by the illustration. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



133 



203. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints. — A tenon is a projection 
made on the end of a timber to form part of a joint ; a mortise 
is an opening intended to receive a tenon. In Fig. 243, Zis 



Fig. ^-4: 



Fig. 



i 



-=ZB~ 




the tenon ; M, the mortise ; R, the root of the tenon ; S, S, 
its shoulders ; and c, c are sometimes called the " abutting 
cheeks " of the mortise. 



204. When a vertical timber meets a horizontal timber the 
object of the joint is simply to prevent displacement ; and a 
small, short tenon, sometimes called a " stub tenon/' is usually 
employed. In this case, the tenon should not reach the bottom 
of the mortise, but the strain should be taken by the shoulders. 
Sometimes, instead of making a stub tenon, the whole end of 
one timber is let into another, and the first is then said to be 
" housed." 



Fig. 244 



Fiji-. Xi-4,5 



li!l 





205. When a horizontal timber meets a vertical timber the 
joint may be formed as shown by Fig. 244, or made much 
stronger, if, in addition to the tenon, it is "blocked," Fig. 245, 
or housed, as shown by Fig. 246. 



134 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



206. When one horizontal timber meets another it is a com- 
mon practice, if the proportions of the pieces are favorable, 
to employ a double mortise-and-tenon, Fig. 247, A being sup- 



Fig. a-±6 

t 

Wm 



Fig. UZ-±T 




ported by B. This method cannot be recommended, however, 
because B is very much weakened by the mortises. With refer- 
ence to B only, the best place for the mortise is on the neutral 
axis (in the center of the timber) ; while with reference to A 
only, the tenon should be on its lower edge, that it may be 
re-enforced by all the material above it. If timbers of equal 
depth are thus joined, they will appear as shown by Fig. 248 ; 
but this combination, while strong, is not always practica- 
ble because of surrounding conditions. For this reason both 
mortise and tenon are often placed in unfavorable positions, 



Fig. 3-iS 



Fig. 349 





and the strength of the joint sacrificed. Sometimes the form 
shown by Fig. 249 is used, but this has little in its favor, except 
the ease with which it is made. A better combination is shown 
by Fig. 250, which, although less perfect as a joint, may serve 
the purpose quite as well as Fig. 248, if the timber is long 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



135 



between supports. Tusk tenons are used to overcome the 
difficulties presented by the forms already described when 
employed in heavy construction. This arrangement of sur- 
faces, Fig. 251, allows the mortise to be in the center of the 



Fig.250 



Fi K . 251 



Fig. ass 









sM^> 


--- ~a\ 





timber, and to be small ; and it also allows the tenon, by 
means of the tusk T, to present a low abutting surface on the 
supported timber. Its strength and compactness fully com- 
pensate for the difficulty of fitting it. 

Miscellaneous Joints. 

207. Oblique Mortises and Tenons may be used to join 
two timbers meeting each other at an oblique angle. Fig. 252 
shows a common form in which the abutting surface, repre- 
sented by the dotted line A, is perpendicular to the cheeks of 
the mortise, and the stress transmitted in the direction of the 
arrow is divided between the surfaces represented by the dotted 



Fig. 253 




Fig. 254 




line A and the full line B. A bearing along the latter line 
becomes unreliable when the timbers shrink, or when, by the 
settling of connected parts, the surfaces change their relative 
position. For this reason it is better to depend mainly on the 
line A, which is less affected by the causes mentioned. To 



136 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



take all of the stress, this line should be at right angles to the 
length of the tenon-bearing timber, Fig. 253. This, however, 
while apparently a well-formed joint, is not a strong one, for 
the tenon, which is usually equal to but one-third the width of 



Fig. l'55 




H 

m " 



• 



Fig. 256 




the timber, must alone receive the thrust. To relieve the tenon 
by increasing the area of the abutting surface, the end of A 
may be housed, as shown by Fig. 254, or the joint may be 
strengthened by bolts or straps. 

The mortise for the joint shown by Fig. 253 is usually made 
of the outline abe, and the triangle a' be is not filled. This is 
done because it is easier to cut down the line be than the line 
a'e. There seems to be no objection to this practice. 

208. A Bridle Joint is represented by Fig. 255. It pos- 
sesses the advantage of having its parts so exposed that any 
inaccuracy in the fit is always apparent. An oblique form of 



Fig.257 



Fig. 358 




_ 



ft 

ILL 



f\ ,A 



bridle joint, Fig. 256, is certainly worthy of study. The width 
of the bridle, B, Fig. 255, should not exceed one-fifth the 
width of the timber. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I 37 

209. A Tie Joint is shown by Fig. 257. By the insertion 
of the tie B, the timber A is prevented from falling away in 
the direction indicated by the arrow. The joint illustrated by 
Fig. 197 may be made to serve the same purpose. 

210. A Chase Mortise is a mortise elongated as shown by 
Fig. 258. Its purpose is to admit a cross-timber between two tim- 
bers already fixed. When the cross-timber is in place that por- 
tion of the mortise which is unoccupied may be filled, and the 
joint thus made secure. 

JOINERY. 

211. The work of the joiner, unlike that of the carpenter, 
is usually where it must bear the test of close examination. It 
is, therefore, necessary that the several pieces of which a whole 
w r ork is formed, be united by joints that are neat in appearance, 
or so made as to be hidden from sight. Such joints must be 
strong even where there is apparently but little stress upon 
them ; otherwise, the parts are likely to become loose from 
shrinking and swelling, and to expose unsightly seams. 

Some of the joints already described, while particularly 
adapted to uniting timbers in carpentry, may under given 
conditions be equally suitable for the smaller work in joinery. 
It may also be true that some which are treated in connection 
with joinery are quite as useful in carpentry. As already stated, 
the classification here used only serves to fix in mind a few 
general principles governing the adaptation of joints ; it cannot 
be arbitrarily adhered to. 

The rule in carpentry that makes the simplest form of joint 
best, does not always hold in joinery, because the methods of 
the joiner admit of greater accuracy, and also because the 
pieces of material used are smaller, and consequently less 
affected by shrinkage. 



i38 bench work in wood. 

Beads and Moldings. 

212. Beads, — A single-quirked bead is shown by Fig. 259, 
a being the quirk ; a double- quirked bead is shown by Fig. 260, 

Fig.259 Fig.2 60 






and a staff, or a/2£/<?, bead by Fig. 261. The term reeding is 
applied to a succession of beads, as shown by Fig. 262. A 
bead is said to be stuck when it is formed on the piece of 
material on which it is used, and planted when it is formed on 





a separate piece and glued or nailed in place. The size of a 
bead is indicated by the distance A, Fig. 259. 

213. Beads are sometimes used wholly for ornament, but 
they are designed chiefly to conceal cracks by the shadows 
they cast. It is a principle in joinery that when two boards 
are to be joined they must be made as one complete board, 
with the joint so concealed that no crack is left, either when 
first made or after shrinkage ; or there should be a very decided 
crack, which will appear to have been made intentionally. The 
first kind of joint is made by means of glue ; but as the boards 
forming a surface of considerable width must have some free- 
dom of movement on account of shrinking and swelling tend- 
encies, it follows that when large surfaces are to be covered, 
glued joints cannot be used. Under such circumstances it is 
found best to make no attempt at a close joint, but to allow 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



139 



the pieces to shrink and swell as they may, and depend upon 
beads to conceal the cracks. Thus the joint shown by Fig. 263 
would seem to have been intended for a close fit ; but since it 



Fia-. 263 



Fig. 264 




E^ 





ELEVATION. 



is not, the opening is allowed to remain, and a bead applied, 
as shown by Fig. 264. The crack is thus converted into a quirk 
of a bead, and is not noticeable except on close inspection. 

214. A chamfer is a narrow surface produced usually at 
an angle of forty-five degrees with two other surfaces. Like 
the bead, it may be used for ornament, or for disguising cracks 
as shown by Fig. 265. 

215. A stop chamfer is one which does not extend the full 
length of the piece on which it is formed. See A, Fig. 212. 

216. Moldings, while of the same character with beads, are 
larger and often much more complex in form. They may be 
stuck or planted. Among the most simple forms is the ogee, 
Fig. 266, which is frequently used as a finish for the edge of 
a projecting board — a table top, for example. 



217. A round- nose, Fig. 267, is, perhaps, the simplest of 
all, and is especially useful where a projecting board is subject 



I4O BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

to usage severe enough to destroy sharp angles or small details, 
as is the " tread " of a stair. 

218. From a few simple forms, of which the two shown are 
types, have sprung the variety of styles which, for the most 
part, have no designation but the number given them by the 

Fig. 266 Fig. 267- , Fig. 268 






manufacturer. While most of them may be stuck, as is the 
ogee, Fig. 266, and the common forms shown by Fig. 268, 
they are generally planted. Fig. 269 shows a molding at A, 
planted on a plain surface ; at B, one planted in an angle ; and 




at C, a rabbeted (bolection) molding which overlaps one of 
the pieces forming the angle. 

A fillet 1 is a light strip of material used in a joint as a fasten- 
ing, or, in connection with beads and moldings, as a means of 
ornamentation. 

219. In joining boards, use is frequently made of some out- 
side support, which, though not considered a part of the joint, 
is often the one element that makes the adaptation of the joint 
possible. For example, two boards of a floor may be joined 
to each other in a variety of ways ; but they are both supported 
and retained in position by being fastened to the " flooring 
joist." A consideration of the joint between the boards, how- 
ever, need not involve the joist except as a fastening. 

1 Fillet, or thread. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I4I 

Heading- Joints, or Joints for uniting Pieces in the 
Direction of their Length. 

220. The length to which boards may be sawed is, in 
practice, limited only by man's ability to handle and trans- 
port them with economy. For most purposes the lengths of 
from ten to twenty feet, which are supplied by the trade, serve 
as well as longer ones. They can be handled more easily 
— in other words, more cheaply — than boards of thirty or 
forty feet. 

Fig. 270 shows a square heading-joint which is usually " cut 
under" a little, as indicated by dotted lines, to insure a close 
joint on the surface. 

Fig. ^n 

/ NAIL 



Fis.270 
nail/ 


V i'^^-=---U%^=^» 


n 


JOIST 



E3 



VT 



JOIST 



A splayed heading-joint is shown by Fig. 271. As a joint, 
this will seem more perfect than Fig. 270, but it is more difficult 
to make, and the latter is in most places quite as satisfactory. 

Joints for uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width. 

221. Joints of this class have two offices to perform : first, 
to prevent shrinkage from making an open joint ; and, secondly, 
to distribute to adjoining boards stress that may be received 
by any one of them at points between supports. 

222. Fig. 272 shows at A a. plain butt joint, which has no 
provision against opening, and in which the boards do not 
support each other ; it is really no joint at all. The same 
figure shows at B, C, and D, respectively, a filleted joint, a 
rabbeted joint, and a matched joint. Any of these may be 



I42 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

beaded, as shown by Fig. 264. The marring of the surface by 
nail heads may be prevented by secret nailing, which is shown 
in Fig. 272. 




Joints of this class which have no support outside of them- 
selves must be held by glue. 

223. A Glued Butt Joint, if well made, will be quite as 
strong in the softer woods as a glued matched or a glued 
filleted joint. It is difficult, however, especially if the boards 
are long, to keep the two pieces forming the plain joint in 
proper position while the glue is setting. Even if they are 
clamped, they are almost sure to slip, so that when the joint 
has finally become firm, the boards may have assumed a 
position similar to that shown, Fig. 273. The fillet, and the 

Fig.273 -. & "-"* 



IS 



tongue and groove {B and D, Fig. 272), are useful in keeping 
the parts in place until the glue has hardened. Dowels may 
be used for the same purpose, Fig. 274. If they are placed 
at short intervals, and are well fitted, they will add strength to 
the joint. 

224. Cleating. — A cleat is a piece of material fastened 
across the width of a board to prevent its warping ; if the sur- 
face is composed of several pieces, the cleat is also designed 
to hold them together. It may be applied to the back of the 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



143 



pieces, as shown by Fig. 275, or across the ends, as shown by 
Fig. 276. As the grain of the cleat is at right angles to that 
of the surface to which it is fastened, and since wood shrinks 



Fig. 075 



Fig.276 



[1 _ CLEAT A |j 



k 



11 



't)i.V'\.\ I'M" 4/11! 



7^-CLEAT A 



h 




and swells more across the grain than with it, there is likely 
to be some movement of one on the other, and the fasten- 
ings used to secure the cleat should be of such a nature as to 
allow it. Otherwise, the edges of the board will be rigidly held, 
and shrinkage will result in the formation of large cracks, by the 
splitting of the board somewhere near the center. Screws are 
undoubtedly the best fastenings, as they will yield, to some 
degree, without becoming loosened. Nails frequently answer 
every purpose, and dowels are sometimes used. Glue is un- 
serviceable. When it is used alone the cleats soon drop off ; 
and when used with other fastenings it either gives way en- 
tirely, or breaks at intervals, causing local cracks. 



225. Side-cfcating, Fig. 275, is the more effective of the two 
methods, because the cleat may be larger and, for this reason, 
the fastenings be applied to better advantage. But when ex- 
posed to view, side cleats are unsightly, and are often objec- 
tionable because they increase the thickness of the piece as a 
whole. The proportions of the cleat may vary with the duty 
expected of it. Other things being equal, a deeper cleat like 
A will be more effective than B. It is more difficult, however, 



144 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



to put screws or other fastenings through A than through B ; 
either may be fastened by screws inserted from the face of 
the board. 

226. End cleats are neat in appearance, and, when decided 
warping tendencies are not to be overcome, do good service. 
To supplement the fastenings a narrow tongue may be formed 
on the board to fit a corresponding groove in the cleat, as 
shown in connection with B, Fig. 276. 



227. 



Fig. 



277 
A 



M 



SAW CUT) 
SAW CUT, 



If only one surface of a cleated board is to be made 
use of, — a drawing board, for example, 
— the strain on the cleat may be les- 
sened by a succession of saw cuts on 
the lower side, extending the length 
of the board, as shown by Fig. 277. 
By this means the warping tendency 
of a seven-eighths-inch board may be 
reduced to that of a quarter-inch or 
even a one-eighth-inch board. 



Section A.B. 



Joints for uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 

228. Butt Joints. — A plain joint of this kind is represented 
by Fig. 278. The joint may be concealed by a bead, as indi- 
cated by dotted lines ; and when the material is thick and it is 



Fig.27 8 



Fig. i2 79 





Fig. 280 



-J 



Fig. Q81 




desirable to prevent an exposure of end grain as much as pos- 
sible, the joint may be modified, as shown by Fig. 279. This 
form also may be beaded. When great strength is demanded 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



M5 



a housed joint may be made, Fig. 280. The sides and ends of 
troughs which are required to be water-tight, are frequently 
made in this way. If there can be no projection, as A, Fig. 280, 



Fi-. 38£2 



Fig. 28« 



Fig. 284 



G. 



A 




this joint may be modified as shown by Fig. 281, but it \vi] 
lose in strength. 



229. Miter Joint. — Fig. 282 shows a plain miter joint. Its 
sole recommendation lies in the fact that it exposes no end 
grain, for, from a mechanical point of view, it is weak and 
faulty, — weak because difficult to fasten, and faulty because, 
as the two pieces forming the joint shrink, each will become 
narrower on the lines A, A, and produce the change of form 
shown by the dotted lines B and B'. As a result of this change 
either the angle C between the two pieces must become smaller, 
or the joint must open, forming a wide crack on the inside, 
which is represented by the triangle BDB'. 

Miter joints between two pieces of different thickness are 
made in the form illustrated by Fig. 283. Occasionally this is 
used when the pieces are of the same thickness, 
Fig. 284 ; for while it has the advantages of the 
plain miter joint, it is stronger and less 
affected by shrinkage. Fi »- 285 

230. Glue, and brads or nails, the 
usual fastenings for miter joints, may 
be supplemented by a fillet inserted as shown by A, Fig. 285, 
or by small pieces inserted in saw cuts which are made across 
the angle of the joint, as shown by A, Fig. 286. 



Fig. 286 




I46 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

231. Dovetail Joints have already been discussed (1 71-176). 
They can be made much stronger than any of the other angle 
joints herein considered. The plain dovetail, Fig. 199, is 

Fig.287 



sometimes objectionable because it exposes end grain, but the 
checkered appearance of a well-made joint almost counter- 
balances this objection. In the lap-dovetail joint, however, 
Fig. 201, the end grain disappears from one face, and in the 
blind dovetail, Fig. 203, from both faces. The blind dovetail 
is certainly all that could be desired as far as strength and 
appearance are concerned, but it is difficult to make. 

232. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints in joinery are different from 
those employed in carpentry only in the proportions of their 
parts and the accuracy with which they are fitted. When the 
thickness B, Fig. 287, of the pieces joined is the same, the 
thickness A of a simple tenon may vary from one-third to 
one-half that of the piece on which it is formed, practice 
tending toward the larger figure ; and its breadth C ought not 
to exceed seven times its thickness. For the thickness given, 

Fig. J388 



Fig. 287 shows a tenon of the greatest breadth allowable. The 
breadth is thus limited because the sides of the mortise derive 
their support from the solid material at its ends, and they 
become too weak for good service when the limit named is 
exceeded. Again, the tenon, if too broad, will not stand the 
pressure of wedging, but is likely to become distorted, thus 
putting additional strain on the mortise and frequently causing 
it to split. See Fig. 288. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



47 



233. When the piece on which the tenon is to be formed is 
very broad, a single tenon, if employed, leaves wide shoulders, 
AB, Fig. 289. These are open to objection because of the 



Fig. Q89 



Fit*, a 00 



re^H 






... 



WIP 




tendency of the tenon piece to warp so that its surface at 
D will not agree with the surface of the piece it joins at C. 
Under such circumstances a double tenon, Fig. 290, may be 
used. This will give the support that is needed, and will not 
violate the principle laid down in 232. Double tenons, how- 
ever, while they obviate one difficulty introduce another. The 
tenons are unyielding, and, if the piece is very wide, its shrink- 
age is likely to produce a crack between them, as denoted by 
the dotted lines A, Fig. 290. 



234. Haunching is a device by which the tenon proper 
is supplemented by very short tenons, or " haunches," as 
indicated by the dotted outline, Fig. 291. These prevent the 



Fig. 291 








/IIS 



m 



tenon piece from warping and the danger of its splitting 
from shrinkage is not increased. If the piece shown by 
Fig. 289 were haunched, the imperfection it illustrates would 
be removed. 



I48 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

235. Four tenons may be used in a single joint when the 
pieces to be united are very thick and wide, Fig. 292. By 
their use the parts are made small enough to prevent shrinkage 
from producing a bad joint. 

236. In forming a joint at the extremity of the mortise piece, 
a single tenon, if employed, must be cut away at one side, as 
shown by Fig. 293. Such a joint may be haunched, Fig. 294, 
or if the pieces are sufficiently wide, two tenons may be used, 
Fig. 213. 

Fig.293 Fig. 294 




237. Mortise-and-tenon joints in joinery are capable of all 
the modifications of form which they are made to assume in 
carpentry. They may be housed, for example, or made in any 
of the oblique forms. 

Paneling. 

238. A Panel is a board, or a combination of boards, em- 
ployed to fill an opening within a frame. Thus, in Fig. 295, 
the pieces ^constitute the frame, and the pieces A,B, C, and D 
are panels. The primary purpose of this arrangement is to 
give an extended surface of wood so constructed that the 
pieces of which it is made shall be well and neatly fastened, 
and, at the same time, the dimensions and the general appear- 
ance of the whole be unaffected by shrinking or swelling. To 
enhance the attractiveness of the surface, both frame and panel 
are frequently embellished, sometimes so richly that we lose 
sight of the mechanical necessity of the panel, and come to 
regard it as a means of decoration. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 

Fig.2 95 



149 




> / c^^^ m ^hi 



n 



I 50 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

239. The Frame taken by itself is, in general, made up of 
vertical and horizontal pieces united by mortise-and-tenon 
joints. Vertical pieces extending the full length of any frame 
are called "stiles," and horizontal pieces, "rails." Each of 
these parts should be as narrow as is consistent with the degree 
of strength required. The width of a rail should never be more 
than twice that of the stile, which, as a rule, should not exceed 
four and a half inches. A consideration of Fig. 295 will show 
that, although the door is three or more feet wide, the only sur- 
faces whose shrinkage can affect the width are the two 4^-inch 
stiles. Large surfaces are covered not by increasing the size 
of the parts but by increasing their number. 

A fillet e is often inserted to cover the end of the tenons, 
which would otherwise show on the edge of the door. 

240. The panel may be either fastened to the back of the 
frame or inserted in a groove, or " plow," formed in the frame 
to receive it. In either case, provision must be made for 
shrinking and swelling. When fastened to the back, screws are 
usually found to make a sufficiently yielding joint. When fitted 
into the frame no fastening is needed beyond that derived 
from its position. It must fit loosely enough to draw out on 
shrinking, but not so loosely as to rattle. 

In Fig. 295, A is a plain panel screwed to the back of the 
frame, and the frame about it is stop-chamfered. This is, 
probably, the simplest combination of frame and panel. In 
common with all panels fastened in this way, it is best adapted 
to work that is to be seen from one side only, as a closet door 
or the permanent lining of a room. 

B shows a plain panel fastened to the back of a frame which 
is ornamented by a molding. 

C differs from B only in being let into the frame instead of 
being screwed to the back. The reverse face c may be orna- 
mented by a molding in the same manner as C, or by a chamfer. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I 5 I 

D shows a raised panel embellished by a rabbeted molding. 
The reverse face d is a plain raised panel. 

A panel and frame may be plain on one side and ornamented 
on the other ; the ornamentation on one side may differ from 
that on the other, or the sides may be similar ; and any form 
of embellishment that may properly be applied to board sur- 
faces may be used in connection with this work. 

FASTENINGS. 

241. Pins are employed principally as a means of holding 
tenons in mortises. In carpentry one pin, generally„is used in 
each joint, its diameter varying from one-sixth to one-fourth 
the width of the tenon. It is commonly placed at a distance 
from the abutting cheeks of the mortise, equal to one-third 
the length of the tenon. But to secure the maximum strength 
of the joint, its exact location in any particular case must be 
fixed with reference to the character of the material, and also 
to the relative thickness of the tenon and the cheeks of the 
mortise. In joinery it is found best to use two or more pins, 
and, whatever the proportions of the joint may be, these rarely 
exceed three-eighths of an inch in diameter. They are inserted 
very near the abutting cheeks of the mortise, so that that part 
of the mortise between them and the shoulder of the tenon 
will not shrink enough to make an open joint. 

Square pins are better than round ones, but the latter are 
more easily fitted and, therefore, more used. 
Drawboring has already been described (168). 

242. Wedges. — The most common use of wedges is illus- 
trated by Fig. 213 in connection with Exercise No. 14, which 
requires wedges to be dipped in glue and driven between the 
tenon and the ends of the mortise. Wedges are also driven 
in saw cuts made in the end of the tenon for the purpose of 
expanding it, as illustrated by Fig. 296, which shows at A a. 



15- 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



section of a joint before the wedges are driven, and at B a 
section of the finished joint. The saw cut should extend 
somewhat deeper than the point reached by the wedge. If 
the tenon is broad, or if a considerable increase in breadth is 



Fig.2 96 



Fig.297 




/EDGE. ], WEDGE 
III 1 



required, more than one wedge must be used. When there 
are more than two, a large one should be inserted in the cen- 
ter and smaller ones on each side, as shown by Fig. 297, the 
wedges ready for driving at A and the joint finished at B. 

243. Blind-wedging is sometimes resorted to when the mor- 
tise does not extend through the piece. As shown by Fig. 298, 
the mortise is enlarged at the bottom and the wedges started 
in ; then, as the pieces are driven together, the ends of the 
wedges strike against the bottom of the mortise and spread 
the tenon. When driven, the tenon cannot be withdrawn. 



Fig.298 




Fig. 299 



244. Keys differ from wedges in respect to their sides, 
which are parallel or nearly so. The key may be a single 
piece, as shown in the joint, Fig. 197, or, what is better, 
made as two wedges, Fig. 299. These may be put in place 
when in the relative position shown by A'B, after which, by 
driving them upon each other, as indicated by A, B, the joint 
may be tightened. The parallelism of the outside edges, which 
are in contact with the joint, is always maintained. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



153 



245. Dowels are round wooden pins of small diameter 
used to strengthen a joint. They should be dipped in glue 
and driven at a tight fit into holes made for their reception. 
They may be carried entirely through one piece and into the 
other, Fig. 277, or inserted as shown by Fig. 274. 

Dowels may be made at the bench by the plane, or they 
may be turned. When planed, they will be improved in sec- 
tion if driven through a round hole in a piece of iron or steel. 
They are supplied by the trade, of all ordinary diameters, and 
in lengths of several feet, so that the consumer has but to cut 
them to lengths suited to his purposes, and point them. 

Shoe pegs serve well as small dowels. After being dipped in 
glue they should be driven in brad-awl holes. 

Whenever fastenings are required to be so placed that sub- 
sequent operations bring the cutting tools about them, dowels 
are preferable to brads or nails, since they may be planed off 
without injury to the tool. 



Fig. .^00 
f 



Fig. 170 
A B 



246. Nails are classified according to the process by which 
they are made, the material used, their form and proportions, 
and the use for which they are intended. Iron and steel are 
the most common materials, but when 
these would be destroyed by corrosion, 
copper and " galvanized " iron are used. 
The forms of most importance to the 
bench-worker may be classed as com- 
mon and finishing (or casing) nails. 
Their comparative proportions are illus- 
trated by Figs. 170 and 300, the former 
representing a common, and the latter 

1. 

greater strength of the common nail 
makes its use desirable when there is sufficient material to 
receive it properly, and when the appearance of the head on 



154 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the surface is not objectionable. The finishing nail may be used 
in more delicate material, and makes a smaller scar on the work. 
Cut nails are so called because, in the process of manu- 
facture, each nail is cut from a plate of metal. The plate has 
a width equal to the length of the nail, and a thickness equal 
to its breadth. Generally speaking, all nails of the form shown 
by Figs. 170 and 300 are cut. 

Fig. 301 Wire nails, Fig. 301, are now in general use. 

Their strength and tenacity are unequaled. They 
are made from drawn wire in sizes varying from 
that of the smallest brad to that of the largest 
spike. The terms used to describe cut nails, as 
to size and form, are also applied to wire nails. 
The holding power of a wire nail is often inferior 
to that of a cut nail. 

247. The length of nails is indicated by numbers prefixed 
to the word " penny," as 6-penny, 8-penny, — terms x which are 
now used arbitrarily, though originally they were doubtless 
significant. 

The length of nails of ordinary sizes is given as follows : — 

A 3-penny nail is one inch long. 




A 4-penny 


" one and one-fourth inches long. 


A 5-penny 


" one and three-fourths " " 


A 6-penny 


u twQ it u 


A 7 -penny 


" two and one-fourth " " 


An 8-penny 


" two and one-half " " 


A 10-penny 


" two and three-fourths " " 


A 12-penny 


" three " " 


A 20-penny 


" three and one-half " " 



1 It has been suggested that they once indicated the value or price 
of a given number of nails, 6-penny nails being sold at sixpence per 
hundred, and 8-penny nails for eightpence per hundred. Another ex- 
planation is that penny, as here used, is a corruption of pound, 6-penny 
meaning that a thousand nails weighed six pounds ; 8-penny, that a 
thousand weighed eight pounds ; and so on. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I 55 

248. Brads are small finishing nails, now usually of wire. 
Their size is expressed in inches and fractions of an inch, and 
ranges from one-fourth of an inch to two inches. 

249. Tacks are useless for fastening pieces of wood to each 
other, but are indispensable when lighter material, such as cloth 
or leather, is to be fastened to wood. They vary in form and 
size with the particular use for which they are intended. Their 
size is expressed by a number prefixed to the word " ounce." x 
The length of the more common sizes varies as follows : — 



A 


i-ounce 


tack 


is three-sixteenths 


A 


2-ounce 




■ one-fourth 


A 


3-ounce 


" 


three-eighths 


A 


4-ounce 


" 


seven-sixteenths 


A 


6-ounce 


" 


■ one-half 


An 


S-ounce 


" 


nine-sixteenths 


A 


10-ounce 


« 


five-eighths 



250. Common Screws are either bright or blued, steel or 
brass, round-headed ox flat-headed. 

Bright screws are finished by polishing. When blued, the 
luster of the polish has been taken off by heat or an acid, and 
a deep blue finish produced. Blued screws will not rust so 
easily as bright screws, and in most work they look better — 
considerations which apply with still greater force to the use of 
brass as a material instead of steel. 

Flat-headed screws, shown by Fig. 124, are the most com- 
mon. When used on finished surfaces, the heads should be 
sunk below the general level and the hole above them filled. 
When this is not convenient, round heads, which in the finished 
work will appear above the surface, are frequently employed. 

1 This expression may have once represented the weight of 1000 
tacks; for example. 1000 tacks ^ 5 " long weighed one ounce, and were 
therefore called " one-ounce " tacks. 



I 56 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

The size of screws is indicated by their length in inches or 
fractions of an inch, and by the diameter of the wire forming 
the body ; this diameter is expressed by a number which refers 
to a ''standard screw gauge." The sizes of the screw gauge 
range from No. o, which represents a diameter of a little less 
than a sixteenth of an inch, to No. 30, which represents a 
diameter somewhat greater than seven-sixteenths of an inch. 
The size of a screw two inches long and a quarter of an inch 
in diameter would be written 2" x No. 15. 

251. Glue is chiefly of two kinds, animal and fish. Animal 
glue is a product obtained from the refuse of tanneries 
(bone, horn, hoofs, and bits of hide), which is made to give 
up the glutinous matter it contains by being boiled under 
pressure. Fish glue is extracted from the spawn and en- 
trails of fish. As prepared for the market, both are generally 
in the form of cakes, varying in thickness from an eighth of an 
inch to very thin chips, according to the quality and character 
of the glue. For bench work these are dissolved in water, and 
the mixture applied hot. For convenience in dissolving the glue, 
a glue-pot is used, which is an arrangement of two vessels, one 
within another, the inner being for glue, the outer for water. 
Heat is communicated in any convenient way to the water, and 
the water in turn heats the glue. The use of the vessel of 
water is to prevent the glue from burning. 

Gluing. — When ready for use, the glue should be hot and 
of the consistency of thin sirup. It must be applied with a 
brush, in a thin, uniform coating, to both surfaces that are to 
be joined, and must be well brushed into the pores of the 
wood. Too much glue will prevent the pieces from coming 
together in the joint. The application should be made as 
quickly as possible because the glue begins to cool and set as 
soon as it is taken from the pot ; it will set less quickly if 
the pieces to be glued are warmed. After the pieces have 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I 57 

been put together, they should be rubbed to squeeze out the 
surplus glue, and finally clamped in place and allowed to remain 
until dry — at least twelve hours. 

In gluing large surfaces, such as veneers which must be 
secured to their foundations, a considerable amount of appa- 
ratus is required. Before the glue is applied, a heating box or 
chamber, which is maintained at a high temperature by coils 
of steam pipe, is used to heat the pieces to be united, and 
very heavy clamps are required to squeeze the superfluous glue 
from the joint. It is important to remember that while the 
film of glue uniting two pieces should always be continuous, 
the pieces themselves should be brought as closely together as 
possible. 

When end grain is to be glued it should first be sized ; that is, 
coated with thin glue, in order to fill the pores of the wood, 
and allowed to dry before the joint is made. Otherwise, the 
glue that is put into the joint is drawn off into the grain and 
becomes useless as a fastening. 

An example of good gluing is found in the common lead 
pencil, the wooden portion of which consists of two strips 
glued together. The line of the joint can readily be traced 
upon the end of the pencil, but if the work is well done, it will 
be found that while the joint is a strong one, the amount of 
glue between the pieces is so small as to be scarcely visible. 

Liquid glues are supplied by the trade. They require no 
heating and are, therefore, always ready for use. 



PART IV. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION FOR USE. 

TIMBER. 

252. Timber is that portion of the woody material of trees 
which is serviceable for carpentry and joinery. If the trunks 
of timber-bearing trees are cut into sections, they are found to 
be composed of concentric cylindrical layers, separated from 
each other and evidently quite distinct. One of these layers, 
Fig. 302, is formed each year during the period of growth of 
the tree, though false rings are sometimes produced by inter- 
ruptions of growth, such as are caused by drouths, or by the 
destruction of foliage by caterpillars. The rings vary in thick- 
ness, in density, and in color, according to the rapidity of 
growth, the length of the season, and other circumstances 
which may change from year to year. 

The outer portion of the trunk of a tree consists of a pro- 
tective layer of bark. Next to the bark is the bast, then the 
cambium layer, or zone of growth, and then the sapwood, 
which is usually lighter in color and less strong and dense than 
the interior portions, or hearhvood. As indicated by its name, 
the ascent of sap takes place through the sapwood. Water 
containing small quantities of minerals in solution is taken up 
by the fibrous rootlets and, passing from cell to cell through 
the thin walls, ascends through the outer layers of roots, trunk, 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION 



159 



and branches to the leaves. Here, under the influence of 
light and heat, the greater part of the water is given off in the 
form of vapor, and another part, with the salts it contains, is 
converted into food materials. These travel downward from 
leaf to branchlet, through the outer layers of the trunk to the 
roots, disposing of themselves wherever they are needed along 
the way, in forming new wood, new buds, and new roots. These 
movements of water upward and food materials downward, take 
place simultaneously, the water (sap) moving through the sap- 
wood, and the food materials through the bast and inner cortex. 

Fig.3 02 




As the tree grows older, the cells next to the center of the 
trunk gradually lose their food products, and other substances 
are infiltrated into their walls and sometimes into the cell 
cavities, changing the color in the majority of cases, and 
increasing the density of that part of the tree ; this darker 
portion is known as heartwood. The ascent of sap is greatest 
in the spring, and practically ceases, in the trunk of the tree, 
in winter. 



6o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. 303 



The growth of wood which a tree makes in the spring is 
usually characterized by thin-walled cells and an abundance of 
sap. In the summer growth the cell walls are thicker, with 
the cell cavities correspondingly smaller, and the wood is, 
therefore, darker. The slight autumn growth is still more 
dense and dark. The wood of these three seasons taken 
together is the yearly growth of the tree — the annual ring. 
In some trees the annual rings are scarcely perceptible, while 
in others they are quite distinct, — a difference which depends 
upon the kind of tree as well as upon the climate. For example, 
in cross-sections of oak and chestnut, the spring growth of the 

annual ring forms a light por- 
ous zone, which is, however, 
somewhat irregular and shades 
gradually into the darker and 
denser zone of summer growth. 
In other woods, like South- 
ern pines, the change between 
spring and summer wood is 
sharply marked, and each an- 
nual ring shows two clearly 
denned bands. In tropical re- 
gions, where the change of sea- 
son is not pronounced, growth 
is more regular and the layers 
correspondingly less definite. An examination of the cross- 
section of any tree trunk will disclose the annual rings, and 
also the difference in the appearance of sapwood and heart- 
wood. Fig. 302 shows a portion of such a cross-section. 




253. The Structure of Wood is entirely cellular, the cells 
varying in form and size, and performing different functions 
in the economy of the tree. Some carry water from the roots 
to the leaves, some store away digested food, and others give 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 



161 



strength to the structure and hold it together. Nearly the whole 
volume of wood, over ninety per cent in pine, is made up of 
wood cells. Most of these are long and slender, with their 
length coinciding in direction with that of the trunk or branch 
they have built up ; and in many cases their tapering ends 
overlap and thus increase the strength and toughness of the 
stem. They are separated most readily in the direction of 
their length, as is illustrated by the ease with which wood 



Fig.304 



III I 




splits " with the grain." Medullary rays are thin plates 
of cellular tissue which run from the pith to the bark on 
all sides, strengthening and binding together the longitudinal 
cells. To the unaided eye these rays appear as simple lines 
in a cross-section of wood, and as glistening plates in a 
longitudinal section. In the oak, the medullary rays are con- 
spicuous in every cross-section, while in some of the softer 



62 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



woods they can hardly be traced. Fig. 303 represents a small 
portion of an annual ring of spruce, magnified one hundred 
times. The vertical tubes are wood cells, and mr is a medullary 
ray part of which has been removed. The circular depressions 
or pits on the wood cells are thin places in the cell walls ; they 

Fig. 3 OS 










I 






liilliHiiill l i l iiilM 



are very conspicuous in all woods of the pine family. This figure 
shows also the manner in which the tapering ends of wood cells 
overlap. The specimen of wood here given is from one of 
the needle-leaved trees and shows a tangential section on its 
right face, while Fig. 304 shows a microscopic enlargment of a 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 63 

tangential section of a broad-leaved tree, white oak, with a 
large medullary ray, mr, and also portions of smaller rays. 

Woods are hard, soft, light, heavy, tough, porous, and elas- 
tic, according to the kind and size of the cells and the deposits 
in the cell walls. They are also easy or hard to work in propor- 
tion as their cells are arranged in a simple or a complicated 
manner ; white pine cuts more easily than oak because it is 
more uniform in structure. 

254. Markings of wood depend more upon cell arrange- 
ment than upon difference of color. In preparing the more 
valuable woods for market, therefore, the logs are cut in such 
a way as to display the cell arrangement to the best advantage, 
thus increasing the beauty of the wood and, as a consequence, 
its commercial value. This is illustrated in Figs. 302 and 305. 
By cutting the tree in a longitudinal plane through the center 
the annual rings appear in approximately parallel straight 
lines (a, a, Fig. 302 ), forming what is known as straight grain. 
If the tree is not straight, the cutting plane crosses from one 
annual layer to another, forming " flashes,"/, as shown in the 
tangential section ts. If the medullary rays are well marked 
and the cutting plane is along a radius of the log, the cut will 
be bounded by portions of the ray which will extend over a 
greater or less area, forming "dapples," a 7 , Fig. 305. The 
appearance of the medullary rays, when thus exposed, accounts 
for the term " silver rays " which is sometimes applied to them. 
Another method of sectioning is that of sawing the log into 
quarters and then into smaller pieces, crossing by Fi 306 
cuts which expose the annual rings, as indicated 
by Fig. 306. This method is termed " quarter- 
sawing." It greatly increases the cost of the lumber 
because of waste, but at the same time increases its 
strength and enhances its beauty, especially in the case of 
those woods in which the medullary rays are conspicuous. 




64 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fis.307 



Beauty of grain is often developed, also, by a rotary cut 
which is obtained by revolving a log against the advancing edge 
of a broad knife or cutter. The result of this process is a thin, 
broad, continuous ribbon of wood, which may be used as a 
veneer upon the surface of inferior woods. 

Crooked or irregular grain weakens timber and makes it more 
difficult to work, and is, therefore, undesirable in material 
which is to be used in the framing of structures ; but it has its 
value in the realm of ornamentation. Every bend or twist in 
the growing tree disturbs the regularity of its 
structure and enhances the beauty of the boards 
which may sometime be cut from its trunk. 
When, therefore, a wood is suitable for decora- 
tive purposes, its value is increased rather than 
diminished by such irregularities of grain. Some 
of the most common markings are knots caused 
by undeveloped buds which are covered over 
by the later growth of the tree. Fig. 307 shows 
a " dead " knot formed by the breaking away 
of a branch. The branch was a living one for 
four years, as is shown by the fact that four 
annual rings are united with it. There is no 
union with later rings, and still later ones would 
cover the knot entirely. 
In woods such as mahogany, satinwood, sycamore, and ash, 
figures resembling the ripple marks of the sea on fine sand, are 
due to a serpentine form of the grain, the fibers being wavy in 
planes perpendicular to that on which the ripple is observed, 
and those parts of the wood which receive the light being the 
brightest. 

Markings in wood are of value in cases where a handsome 
finish is required, as in furniture and cabinetwork, and in the 
inside decoration of buildings. The trees that yield such 
material are those which have plenty of room for growth, 




TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 65 

which are exposed to winds that bend and twist, and which 
have ample light and space for the development of branches. 
Lumber sawed from such trees will usually contain curls, 
knots, and wavy grains of great beauty. 

Attention has already been called to the fact that, for 
structural purposes, straight grain and freedom from knots 
are desirable. These qualities are most readily found in 
trees growing under forest conditions ; that is, among other 
trees, where the effort of the growing tree to reach the light, 
together with a process of " natural pruning " which prevents 
branches from growing, results in the production of long, 
straight stems. 

255. The Adaptability of the various woods depends on a 
variety of conditions. The carpenter and builder, who requires 
a large quantity of material with the least possible outlay of 
labor upon it, uses those kinds that are abundant and cheap, 
that are to be had in timbers of large dimensions, that are light 
to ship, easy to work, fairly stiff, and insect proof. They need 
not be handsome, hard, tough, or very strong, and shrinkage 
after the wood is in place is no serious objection. In order 
that the material may be easily worked, it is necessary that it 
be soft and reasonably free from curls and knots. The furniture 
maker uses smaller quantities of material, but he expects to put 
a large amount of labor upon it, and he requires a wood that 
combines strength, and sometimes toughness, with beauty and 
hardness, — one that takes a good polish, that is not easily 
indented, and that will keep firm joints. For some purposes, 
it is required that wood shall neither warp nor shrink when 
in place ; it need not be very light, or soft, or insect proof, 
or very cheap, or abundant in any one kind, or furnish pieces of 
large dimensions. The wagon maker seeks the qualities of 
toughness, strength, and hardness combined ; the carriage 
builder, cooper, and shingle maker require straight-grained, 



1 66 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

easy-splitting woods, with the long fiber which precludes 
knots; the essentials for telegraph poles are durability, elas- 
ticity, and the right proportion of length to diameter; and 
good railroad ties must be hard, must hold spikes firmly, and 
must resist the action of the weather. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL TIMBER- 
YIELDING TREES. 

256. Classification of Trees. — There are in the United 
States nearly four hundred distinct species of trees, but the 
greater part of all the wood used in construction is taken 
from a comparatively small number. 

Trees are divided into two general classes known as exo- 
gens and endogens. The former includes all trees the trunks of 
which are built up by rings or layers, — the growth, therefore, 
being upon the outside. Endogenous trees in- 
crease from within, the new wood-strands being 
interspersed- among the old, and causing cross- 
surfaces to appear dotted, as illustrated by 
Fig. 308, which represents a cross-section of the 
trunk of a palm tree. Old endogenous stems 
have the older and harder wood near the sur- 
face and the younger and softer toward the center. Examples 
of this class are found in palms, yuccas, and bamboos, and 
the character of their growth is well illustrated in the common 
cornstalk. 

257. The Exogens are the timber-yielding trees, and since 
they furnish the woods useful in construction, they are the 
ones of special interest to the woodworker. They are sub- 
divided into broad-leaved trees and needle-leaved trees, or 
conifers. Most of the broad-leaved trees are deciduous ; that 




TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 



167 



is, they shed their foliage in the autumn of each year. The 
needle-leaved trees are, almost without exception, evergreen. 



Fig. L509 



. 










m*4 



***** .#» 



258. Effect of Environment on the growth of trees is such 
as greatly influences their timber value. Trees which grow in 
the open, quite apart from other trees, acquire a shapeliness 



i68 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. 310 



and beauty which is never equaled by those which grow in 
the thicket or forest, but the timber value of such trees is 
decreased by the presence of limbs, which branch from all 
sides of the stem, leaving but a short length of clean trunk 
from which clear lumber can be made, Fig. 309. A forest 
tree, on the other hand, finds light only at the top. The 
shade of the trees, which crowd it on every side, prevents it 
from putting out branches until it finds a level where it can 
reach out into or over their tops. A forest 
has in fact two floors, the first being the 
ground out of which the trunks of the trees 
spring, and the second, the floor of .foliage 
where the tops of the trees branch, and 
crowd each other for room and light, and 
above which the occasional tree of unusual 
vigor rises and waves its lofty boughs. 
Between these two floors, a distance of 
from forty to more than eighty feet, extend 
the straight, limbless trunks of the trees 
which, like high columns, support the floor 
of foliage above. These straight, smooth 
trunks of the forest trees constitute the 
chief source of commercial timber. Fig. 310 
shows a tree of forest growth as exposed to 
view by the removal of neighboring trees. 

259. Broad-Leaved Woods vary greatly 
in structure and, therefore, differ widely in 
quality and use. In general, it may be said that they usually 
contain no resins and that their density, or weight, is great; 
they are usually hard and have a complex and irregular structure, 
and for these reasons are difficult to work ; and they are likely 
to be of irregular growth and shape, having many branches, 
and, therefore, not productive of large logs or blocks which 




TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 69 

are free from knots. Some nail with difficulty and are in 
other ways unsuitable for use in general construction, but are 
better adapted to cabinetwork, the making of furniture and 
implements, and any other work which requires beauty of 
finish. 

Ash, basswood, beech, birch, buckeye, butternut, catalpa, 
cherry, chestnut, elm, gum, hackberry, hickory, holly, locust, 
maple, mulberry, sassafras, sycamore, tulipwood, and walnut 
are the principal American woods of the broad-leaved divi- 
sion. Of these the oak, ash, maple, beech, walnut, and pop- 
lar probably furnish the greater part of the commercial timber 
which comes from trees of this class. The general appearance 
of an oak, which may be accepted as a typical hard-timber 
tree, is shown by Fig. 309. 

260. Oak (Qttercus). — The oaks, of which there are in all 
more than forty varieties, produce woods which are exceed- 
ingly variable, but they are usually heavy, hard, tough, porous, 
very strong, and of coarse texture, the sapwood whitish, the 
heartwood ranging in color from a light to a reddish brown. 
There are three well-marked kinds, — white, red, and live oak. 
These are kept distinct in the market, the white and the red 
oak being the most common. 

261. White Oak (Quercus alba Linn.). — This variety of 
oak is found widely distributed over the north-central and the 
eastern portions of the United States. It grows from seventy- 
five to one hundred feet in height and from three to six feet 
in diameter. The bark has a grayish white color from which 
the variety takes its name. The annual layers are well marked 
and the medullary rays are broad and prominent. The wood 
is hard and liable to check unless carefully seasoned. It is 
durable in contact with the soil and is capable of a high 
polish. It is used in shipbuilding, cooperage, cabinetmaking, 
and in the framework of buildings, as well as for furniture, 



i/o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



agricultural implements, carriages, railway ties, and fuel. The 
weight of the seasoned wood is fifty pounds per cubic foot. 
It exists in large quantities and is one of the most valuable 
woods in general use. 

262. Red Oak {Que re us rubra Linn.) is found in Nebraska 
and Kansas, and east of the Rocky Mountains ranges from 
Nova Scotia to Georgia, reaching its best development in 
Massachusetts. It is often brittle, and is usually of coarser tex- 
ture than white oak, being more porous, less durable, and even 



Fi 



311 




more difficult to season. The tree grows to be from ninety to 
one hundred feet in height, and from three to six feet in 
diameter, and has brownish gray bark, which is smooth on the 
branches. The heartwood is light brown or red, the sapwood 
darker, the medullary rays few and broad. For carpentry and 
for furniture making it brings about the same price with white 
oak. It is used for clapboards, barrels, interior finish, chairs, 
and other work of secondary importance. Its weight is forty- 
five pounds per cubic foot. The distribution of the oaks is 
shown by Fig. 311. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. I/I 

263. Maple {Acer) wood is heavy, hard, strong, stiff, tough, 
of fine texture, and often wavy-grained. It is not durable in 
the ground or under exposure to the weather. Its color is a 
creamy white with shades of light brown in the heartwood. It 
shrinks moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, wears 
smooth, and takes a fine polish. It is used for ceiling, floor- 
ing, paneling, for stairways and other finishing work in houses, 
for ship and car construction, and for furniture. It is a good 
material for shoe lasts, shoe pegs, school apparatus, wood type, 
tool handles, wood carving, turnery, scroll work, and the 
mechanism of pianos. The principal varieties are the sugar 
maple and the silver or white maple. 

264. Sugar Maple {Acer Sac char urn Marsh.). — This tree 
yields a sap which is made into sugar, from which fact it takes 
its name, though it has various local names, as hard maple, 
black maple, sugar tree, and rock maple. It is found princi- 
pally in the southern part of Canada and the northern part of 
the United States, though its range extends as far south as 
Florida and Texas. The tree grows from seventy to one 
hundred feet in height and from one and one-half to four feet 
in diameter. It is the hardest variety of maple known and its 
wood is superior in quality. 

Dry maple weighs forty-three pounds per cubic foot. Bird's- 
eye, blister, and sometimes curly effects are found in this 
wood. 

265. Silver or White Maple {Acer dasycarpum Ehr.), 
also frequently called soft maple, and locally swamp maple, 
water maple, and river maple, is found in a region extending 
from New Brunswick to Florida, and westward intermittently 
to Dakota and the Indian Territory. Its general characteris- 
tics are similar to those of the sugar maple, though it is softer, 
its sapwood somewhat lighter in color, and its weight less. Its 
grade is somewhat inferior to that of sugar maple and its use 



72 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



extends to cheaper kinds of work. White maple weighs when 
seasoned thirty-two pounds per cubic foot. 

266. Black Walnut (.Juglans nigra Linn.). — Of the genus 
Juglans there are two species, known as black walnut and 
white walnut, or butternut, though the former is characterized 
popularly by the name walnut. Black walnut is found in 
Ontario and Florida, on the Allegheny Mountains, and west- 
ward intermittently to Nebraska and Texas, and also in 

Fiir. 3 is 




California. Its distribution is well shown by Fig. 312. The 
tree reaches a height of from ninety to one hundred and 
twenty-five feet, and a diameter of from three to eight feet, 
has an almost black bark, and makes a fine appearance, 
except in some portions of the West, where it is small 
and low and much-branched. It is now everywhere scarce 
because of the great demand. The wood is heavy, hard, 
strong, rather coarse-grained, liable to check if not carefully 
seasoned, easily worked, and is durable in contact with the 
soil. Its color is a chocolate brown with lightish sapwood. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 



/ 5 



The annual rings are obscure, the medullary rays numerous but 
thin and not conspicuous. Until lately, when oak has become 
its competitor, walnut has been more generally used for gun- 
stocks, for all kinds of furniture, and for the interior finish of 
buildings than any other North American tree. The weight of 
the seasoned wood is thirty-eight pounds per cubic foot. 

267. Yellow Poplar {Liriodendron Tulipifera Linn.). — 

This wood is also commonly called tulip tree and white wood. 
It is found in the region extending from New England to Florida, 
and westward intermittently to Michigan and Mississippi. The 
tree grows to be from sixty to eighty feet in height and two 
feet or more in diameter, the bark being smooth and of a gray 
color, and the sapwood lighter. It is usually light, soft, stiff 
but not strong, and of fine texture, with the annual rings very 
obscure and the medullary rays thin and inconspicuous. The 
wood shrinks considerably when drying, but seasons without 
injury, does not split in nailing, and works under a tool excep- 
tionally well. It is one of the largest and most useful of the 
broad-leaved trees of the United States. It is used for siding 
and paneling, for finishing lumber in the building of houses, 
cars, and ships, for the side boards and panels of wagons and 
carriages, and for the manufacture of furniture, implements, 
machinery, wooden pumps, wooden ware, boxes, shelving, and 
drawers. Large quantities of the wood are used in the manu- 
facture of paper pulp. The weight of the seasoned wood is 
twenty-six pounds per cubic foot. 

268. Beech (Fagus ferruginea Ait.). — This wood has only 
one representative on the American continent, though in dif- 
ferent localities it is called red beech, white beech, and ridge 
beech. It is found in the region extending from Nova Scotia 
to Florida, and westward intermittently to Wisconsin and Texas. 
The tree grows to be from sixty to eighty feet in height and 



174 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

from two to four feet in diameter, but there is not an abundant 
supply of the wood nor can it be obtained in pieces of very 
large dimensions. Ironwood, sometimes called blue beech, is 
similar to it and is sometimes confounded with it. The heart- 
wood is of a reddish color with variable shades, and the sap- 
wood is nearly white. The grain is close, the annual rings 
obscure, and the medullary rays conspicuous. The wood is 
heavy, hard, strong, works well, and takes a good polish. It is 
not durable in the ground, is liable to the attacks of boring 
insects, and shrinks and checks in drying. It is used for the 
manufacture of lasts, handles, and furniture. The variety com- 
mon in European countries (sylvatica) is also used in wood 
carving, carpentry, millwork, and wagon making. The weight 
of the seasoned wood is forty-two pounds per cubic foot. 

269. Ash (Fraxinus). — This wood occupies a place in com- 
merce next in importance to that of oak. In fact, ash and oak 
resemble each other in that there are bands of porous spring 
wood in both, though the medullary rays of ash are thinner 
and are often hardly discernible. Ash is coarser and less at- 
tractive, but easier to work than oak. There are, in the United 
States, about fifteen species of this genus. Lumbermen, how- 
ever, separate them into white and black ash. 

270. White Ash (Fraxinus Americana Linn.) grows in the 
region between Nova Scotia and Florida, and westward inter- 
mittently to Minnesota and Texas. The tree rises to a height 
of from forty-five to ninety feet and is three or four feet in 
diameter. It usually has gray or dark brown, furrowed bark, and 
smooth leaves, which are white on the under side. The heart- 
wood is a mottled, reddish brown, and the sapwood either white 
or very light. 

The wood is straight-grained, heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and 
tough, but becomes brittle with age ; it is not durable in contact 
with the soil, shrinks moderately, seasons .with little injury, 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 



75 



takes a good polish, and is easily worked. In carpentry it is 
used for finishing lumber, for stairways, and for panels. Barrels, 
baskets, cars, tool handles, and hoops are made from it, as well 
as wagons, carriages, farm implements, machinery, and all kinds 
of furniture. This wood grows in abundance and is one of the 
most useful of the broad-leaved varieties. The weight of the 
seasoned wood is thirty-nine pounds per cubic foot. The general 

Fis- 313 




IVhiteAsk 
Big Tree 
Redwood 



characteristics of the other varieties of this genus are very similar 
to those of white ash. The distribution of this wood is shown 
by Fig. 313. 

271. Needle-Leaved Woods are more uniform in their gen- 
eral characteristics than the broad-leaved varieties. These 
characteristics are lightness, regularity of structure, obscurity 
of the medullary rays, presence of resins, absence of pores in 
sections, and the ease with which the wood is worked. Trees 
of this class may commonly be identified by the cones, by the 



I76 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

needle-like leaves, and by the fact that they are evergreen, 
although there are a few exceptions to this characterization. 
In common speech, needle-leaved tree, soft wood, conifer, and 
evergreen are used as synonymous terms. These trees afford 
large, straight pieces of timber and, consequently, are suitable 
for carpentry and the frames of buildings, and in the United 
States they furnish the bulk of lumber for purposes of con- 
struction. The principal varieties are cedar, cypress, fir, hem- 
lock, tamarack, pine, redwood, spruce, and yew. The general 
appearance of a needle-leaved tree of forest growth is shown 
by Fig. 310. 

272. Pine (Pinus) is by far the most important of the 
needle-leaved family. There are several varieties, all of which 
may be classed as either hard pine or soft pine. The four 
varieties — white pine, long-leaved pine, short-leaved pine, and 
loblolly pine — are important in the production of lumber for 
building purposes. Of these, white pine is a soft wood, while 
the other three are hard woods. Pines are characterized by 
long, smooth, straight, and solid trunks. 

273. White Pine {Pinus Strobus Linn.) is found in the 
north-central and northeastern United States, advancing north- 
ward into Canada, southward into Illinois, and along the Alle- 
ghenies into Georgia. This species, though commonly called 
white pine, is known in different localities as Weymouth pine, 
soft pine, northern pine, spruce pine, and pumpkin pine. It 
is distinctively a northern tree, though it is found in some 
portions of the South. It grows to be from seventy-five to 
one hundred and fifty feet in height, and from three to six feet 
in diameter, and even larger. The wood is very soft, light, 
not strong, very close, straight-grained, exceedingly easy to 
work, and susceptible of a beautiful polish. The resin pas- 
sages are small and not numerous or conspicuous ; the annual 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 177 

rings are obscure, and the medullary rays thin and numerous. 
Its color is a very light brown, often tinged with red, and the 
sapwood is nearly white. It seasons well, shrinks less than 
other pines when drying, and is fairly durable. It is used in 
the manufacture of matches, wooden ware, and shingles, in 
cabinetmaking, for interior finish, and in carpentry, and is the 
most valuable building material of the northern states. It has 
existed in extensive forests, but the supply is now rapidly 
diminishing and the yellow pines are to some extent taking its 
place. The weight of the seasoned white pine is twenty-four 
pounds per cubic foot. Its distribution is shown by Fig. 314. 

274. Long-Leaved Pine {Finns palustris Mill.) is also 
known as hard pine and yellow pine, and in different local- 
ities has many other names. It is a native of the southern 
United States, growing freely in the south-Atlantic and Gulf 
states and intermittently from Virginia to Alabama, and is the 
principal lumber tree of the Southeast. It grows to be from 
fifty to ninety feet in height and from one to three feet in 
diameter. Its distribution is shown by Fig. 314. 

The annual rings are easily detected, the medullary rays are 
numerous and conspicuous, and the color is light red or orange, 
with the sapwood thin and nearly white. The wood is heavy, 
very hard, very strong, tough, coarse-grained, and durable, 
and is used for fencing, railway ties, shipbuilding, interior and 
exterior finishing, and for all sorts of heavy construction. In 
the United States almost the entire product of turpentine, 
pitch, tar, and resin comes from this species. Commercially 
it is considered the most valuable of the southern pines. 
The weight of the seasoned wood is thirty-eight pounds per 
cubic foot. 

275. Short-Leaved Pine {Pinus echinata Mill.) is called 
yellow pine and hard pine, and has many other local names. 



i 7 8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



It is found in the region from Connecticut westward to Kan- 
sas and Texas. The tree grows from fifty to sixty feet in 
height and from two to four feet in diameter, and is erect and 
of fine appearance. Its general characteristics are much like 
those of the long-leaved pine, except that it is lighter and not so 
strong, and its uses, also, are practically the same. The weight 
of the seasoned wood is thirty-two pounds per cubic foot. 



276. Loblolly Pine (Finns Taeda Linn.). — This tree grows 
in nearly the same region as the long-leaved pine and appears 



Fig. r^i-t 




WliitePine 

LongleaforYellowPine 
Bull orYellowPine 



naturally on land which has been abandoned, preferably 
that which has been occupied by a forest. This trait gives it 
the name of old-field pine. The tree grows to be from fifty 
to one hundred feet in height and from two to four feet in 
diameter. In color, grain, structural qualities of wood, and 
representative uses it is very similar to the long-leaved pine, 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 79 

though it is not so durable in the natural state. At present 
one of its uses is in making bridge timbers and railroad cross- 
ties. In such service, by the application of some preservative, 
it is often made to take the place of the more durable long- 
leaved pine. The weight of the seasoned wood is thirty-three 
pounds per cubic foot. 

277. Bull Pine {Pinus ponderosa Douglas). — This species 
of pine is distinct from the other yellow pines in that it is a 
product of the western part of the United States, being found 
from the Rocky Mountains westward to the Pacific Ocean. 
Its distribution is shown by Fig. 314. It is the largest species 
of pine known, growing to be from one hundred to three hun- 
dred feet in height and from six to eight feet in diameter. 
The bark is thick and deeply furrowed. The wood varies 
greatly in quality and value, but in general it is heavy, hard, 
strong, brittle, and rather fine-grained. The medullary rays 
are numerous but rather obscure; the proportion of sap- 
wood to heartwood is large, the former being almost white in 
color and the latter a light red. Since this species contains 
much sapwood, it is not durable, but is used in exposed places 
and in contact with the soil by treating it with a preservative. 
It is manufactured into lumber and is also used for railway 
ties and fuel. Its weight when seasoned is twenty-nine pounds 
per cubic foot. 

278. The Spruces (JPicea) are found in abundance in the 
United States, and though there are several varieties, they are 
all divided commercially into two classes, — white spruce and 
black spruce. Spruce resembles white pine in many of its 
characteristics and uses ; in fact, the resemblance is so great 
that there is much confusion of names in different localities. 
It is often very hard to distinguish between black spruce and 
white spruce. 



l8o BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

279. Black Spruce (Picea nigra Link ; Picea Ma?'iana 
Mill.). — This tree grows in a region between Pennsylvania and 
Minnesota, and along the Allegheny Mountains to North Caro- 
lina, but reaches its best development in Canada. It grows 
to a height of from forty to eighty feet, and a diameter of 
from one to two feet, usually having a straight, conical-shaped 
trunk and dark foliage. The wood is light, soft, not strong, 
straight-grained, and satiny. . It contains considerable resin ; 
the medullary rays are few but conspicuous. The heartwood 
has a light red color which is sometimes nearly white, the 
sapwood being still whiter. It is used in shipbuilding, and for 
piles, posts, and railway ties. In fact, in most of its uses it is a 
somewhat inferior substitute for white pine. The weight of 
the seasoned wood is twenty-eight pounds per cubic foot. 

280. White Spruce {Picea alba Link; Picea Canadensis 
Mill.) grows in high latitudes and is found in northern United 
States, Canada, Labrador, and Alaska. Its general character- 
istics and use are much the same as those of the black spruce, 
except that the trees grow a little higher and the color of the 
wood and foliage is somewhat lighter. 

281. Hemlock (Tsuga), of which there are two principal 
species, is light, soft, stiff, brittle, coarse-grained, and inclined 
to splinter, and the limits of sapwood and heartwood are not 
well denned. The wood has a reddish gray color, is free from 
resin ducts, is moderately durable, shrinks and warps consider- 
ably, wears rough, and retains nails firmly. The bark, which 
is red on the outside, is used for tanning leather. 

282. Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga Canadensis Carr.) is found 
in eastern and central Canada, where it has its best develop- 
ment, and extends southward to North Carolina and Tennessee. 
It is a handsome tree with a straight trunk, and grows to be 
eighty or more feet in height and two or three feet in diameter. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. l8l 

It is manufactured into coarse lumber and is used in the 
frames of buildings, for outside finish, and for railway ties. 
This species furnishes nearly all of the hemlock for the eastern 
market. The weight of the seasoned wood is twenty-six pounds 
per cubic foot. 

283. Western Hemlock {Tsuga Mertensiana Carr.), grow- 
ing in the western part of the United States and Canada, and 
also in Alaska, is similar to eastern hemlock but appears in 
larger trees, is of a better quality, and is heavier, its weight 
being about thirty pounds per cubic foot. When treated to 
prevent decay, it is much used in exposed situations and in 
contact with the soil, especially for railway ties. 

284. Bald Cypress {Taxodium distichum Rich.) is found 
in Maryland, in the south- Atlantic and Gulf states, through 
Florida to Texas, and in the Mississippi valley from southern 
Illinois to the Gulf. It usually grows in swamps and wet 
places, sometimes forming large forests. The wood is light, 
soft, close, straight-grained, not strong, resinous, very easily 
worked, and very durable when in contact with the soil or with 
water ; the medullary rays are numerous but very obscure. It 
has a color between light and dark brown with nearly white sap- 
wood. It is manufactured into shingles, and is used for the con- 
struction of buildings and for railway ties. Its peculiar durability 
in contact with water fits it for use also in the manufacture of 
tanks, casks, and barrels. This wood is a very important one ; it 
is commercially divided into white and black cypress because of 
differences in hardness due to age and environment. The weight 
of the seasoned wood is twenty-nine pounds per cubic foot. 

285. The Common Redwood {Sequoia scmpervirens Endl.), 
found in the central and northern coast region of California, 
grows to be from two hundred to three hundred feet in height, 
and from six to eight, and sometimes to twenty, feet in diameter. 



1 82 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

When young it is a graceful tree with straight and tapering 
trunk and drooping branches, the lower ones sweeping the 
ground. In old age the trunk rises to a great height bare of 
boughs, and the branches on the upper part are short and irreg- 
ular. The wood resembles that of cedar in appearance, the 
color being a clear, light red, with the sapwood almost white, 
the proportion of sapwood to heartwood being small.. It is 
light, soft, not strong, very brittle, rather coarse-grained, 
susceptible of polish, easily worked, and very durable in con- 
tact with the soil. The medullary rays are numerous but very 
obscure. It yields the principal lumber of the Pacific coast and 
is used for shingles, fence posts, telegraph poles, railway ties, cof- 
fins, flumes, tanks for water and for tanning purposes, and water 
pipes for irrigation. When its grain is curled it forms a good 
material for interior decoration and cabinet work. The weight 
of the seasoned wood is twenty-six pounds per cubic foot. 

286. The Big-Tree Variety of Redwood {Sequoia gigantea 
Torr.) is the largest tree of the American forest. It grows 
in practically the same locality as the common redwood, but 
appears chiefly in isolated groups, and there are probably only 
a few hundred individual trees in existence. Some specimens 
have been measured that were three hundred and twenty feet 
in height and thirty-five feet in diameter, with bark about 
two feet thick. The wood resembles that of the common 
redwood except that it is more brittle. The distribution of the 
redwoods is shown by Fig. 313. 

LOGGING. 

287. "Felling Timber 1 should always, if possible, be 
practiced at the period of maturity ; if earlier, the wood will 
not have acquired its greatest strength and density, and will 

1 Quotation marks refer to Thurston's " Materials of Engineering." 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 83 

contain too great a proportion of sapwood ; if later, the wood 
will have become weakened by incipient decay." The age at 
which maturity is reached varies with different trees. The 
oak is said to come to maturity when about one hundred years 
old, and it should not be felled at less than sixty. " Pine 
timber should be cut at from seventy to one hundred years of 
age, and ash and elm at fifty to one hundred." In practice, 
however, trees are often cut before their age of maturity, it 
being not uncommon, in dealing with a forest growth, either to 
clear the ground of all trees, whether large or small, or to cull 
from time to time all trees which are of sufficient size to be 
marketable. As opposed to this custom, a modern theory of 
forestry favors a division of the forest tract into many parts, 
certain of which may be cut each year, the plan being such 
that when the last subdivision has been cut, sufficient time 
will have elapsed to permit the first to become completely 
reforested, and, therefore, ready to give up its second growth. 
An alternative plan, applying especially to forests of mixed 
growth, provides for the systematic removal of mature trees only, 
the work being done under careful supervision. By either of 
these methods the forest, like other products of the soil, may 
be made to yield a certain revenue each year. The complete 
development of any such plan necessarily involves a long 
series of years, and as yet, in this country, no great progress 
has been made ; but it seems probable that the large govern- 
ment forest reservations will hereafter be managed by some 
method of this kind. 

" The season of the year best adapted to felling timber is 
either midwinter or midsummer. The months of July and 
August are often selected, as at those seasons the sound trees 
can be easily distinguished, from the fact that they remain 
green while the unsound trees are then turning yellow. 
Healthy trees then have tops in full foliage, and the bark is 
uniform in color, while unsound trees are irregularly covered 



I84 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

with leaves of varying color, having a rougher and often a 
loosened bark, and decaying limbs." After felling, "the trunk 
should be immediately stripped of its bark, and when heart- 
wood only is wanted, the sapwood removed as soon as possible." 
This gives the wood a chance to dry quickly and at the same 
time prevents deterioration by the action of worms and decay. 
" The bark is often removed from trees in spring and the 
felling deferred till autumn or winter." This, ordinarily, can 
be done only with small trees, but it is a good course to pursue 
when possible. 

In the actual felling of the trees, the method has been from 
time immemorial to use the ax, and very small trees are still 
cut in this way ; for larger trees the saw is used in connec- 
tion with the ax. The cut is usually made high enough above 
the ground to avoid the very hard grain, the heavy sap, and in 
some cases the accumulation of pitch at the base of the tree. 
For large trees this height is from six to eight feet above the 
ground. Notches are first cut on opposite sides of the tree, 
into which are inserted boards on which the workmen stand. 
After the direction of the fall is decided, an "undercut" is 
made with the ax at right angles to it and on the side next 
to the fall, extending into the tree a distance equal to one- 
third of its diameter. The saw is then applied to the opposite 
side, and when the kerf has been advanced nearly through to 
the undercut, wedges are driven into the saw-cut so as to 
bring the tree down in the proper place. In this way the 
possibility of doing injury to other trees may be avoided. 
Machines have been invented to take the place of the method 
described, but they are not in general use. 

After the tree has been felled it is sawed into logs of suitable 
length. Barkers then chop or strip away the bark, either from 
the whole surface of the logs or from the side on which they 
are to be dragged, and clear away the underbrush to form a 
way along which they may be moved. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 85 

288. Transportation of the logs to the sawmill is effected 
in different ways, which depend upon the locality and sur- 
rounding conditions. In all regions except the West, where 
redwood and other very large trees must be handled, the 
common practice is to drag the logs by means of horses or 
oxen to the nearest stream or railroad. For this purpose 
tramways are made by placing logs of similar size parallel to 
each other across the way, at intervals of from four to eight 
feet. The logs are moved to the tramway from the places 
where they have fallen, by rolling if the distance is very short, 
or if the ground is inclined in the proper direction ; otherwise, 
they are pulled into position by a horse. A number of logs 
are then fastened together by chains and a team of horses 
or oxen drags them along the tramway, which leads either to a 
logging railroad or to a stream or pond. In the latter case the 
logs are placed within the high-water zone at a time when the 
water is low, and when the spring freshets cause them to float 
they are guided to the sawmill, which is usually built near a pond 
or stream. This is the cheapest and most common method of 
transportation. In the northern part of the United States and 
in Canada, the common practice has been to carry on the log- 
ging in the winter time, and in the spring to float the logs on 
the water courses to the mill, which does not run during the 
winter season. Here, instead of a tramway, an "ice run" 
is made by cutting a shallow trench in the ground and pour- 
ing water upon it. When it is frozen, the logs are dragged 
over it by a team. This forms an efficient, and compared 
with the tramway a very inexpensive, means of transporta- 
tion. The methods here described are those common in the 
eastern part of the United States, and in fact in all places 
where the operations are not extensive. In the West, where 
bulky material must be handled, and the work is pursued upon 
a large scale, the tendency is to rely upon machinery for 
moving the logs. Chains are secured to them by means of 



1 86 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

grappling hooks, and they are drawn from the place of fall to the 
tramway, or " skid-road," by the action of a " yarding " engine, 
which is similar in form to engines used in hoisting ; on the 
tramway another engine pulls them to the nearest railroad or 
water way. Where the course is down a mountain side, the logs 
may be slid down a suitably constructed chute. 

289. Sawmills contain all the machinery necessary for 
converting logs into lumber. As has been stated, they are 
usually situated upon the shore of some stream or pond, in 
order that they may be easily reached from the lumber camp. 
The process of making lumber from logs is effected by means 
of a saw, fixed in position, to which the log is fed. The log 
is mounted upon a carriage, which is arranged to reciprocate, 
advancing toward the saw for the cutting stroke and return- 
ing after the cut is made. Various means are employed for 
propelling the carriage, which in a large mill is made to move 
with great rapidity. The two classes of machinery used in 
general sawmilling are the circular sawmill and the band saw- 
mill. The former is the older and, for general purposes, is still 
more used. The objections to the circular saw arise from the 
width of its kerf, which causes a great waste of material, the 
loss in sawdust for some cuts being one-fifth the whole amount 
of wood used. 

The band saw has much to recommend it, especially in the 
reduced width of the kerf, which, ordinarily, is but little more 
than half that of a circular saw of the same power and capacity ; 
hence, the amount of material wasted in the form of sawdust is 
less. The band saw is more expensive and not so portable as 
the circular saw, and is therefore more suitable for large and 
permanent establishments. 

290. The Process of Sawing. — The log is drawn from the 
mill pond by means of a carrier, or log jack, operated by the 
power of the mill. Arriving at the proper point, by suitable 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 87 

mechanism the log is rolled upon skids in a position near the 
carriage, and then by the movement of a single lever is thrown 
upon the carriage and fastened. As the carriage goes forward 
toward the saw, the first outside piece, or slab, is cut. On the 
return of the carriage, mechanism operates to move it sidewise 
by an amount sufficient to allow the log to clear the saw. The 
log is turned a quarter of a revolution, after which another 
slab is cut. In this way four slabs are taken off, leaving the 
log nearly square in section, though the thickness of the slabs 
is not sufficient to allow the meeting of the plane surfaces pro- 
duced by their" removal. The squared log is then sawed into 
planks or boards. From the carriage, these land on revolving 
rolls, which carry them to the " edger," in which they are 
trimmed so as to give the widest possible planks with parallel 
edges. From the edger, the lumber moves on rollers or chain 
conveyors to the " trimmer," where it is made to pass saws 
which are set to cut the pieces to standard lengths. It is then 
thrown on a platform, from which it is trucked to the yards for 
storage or to the cars for shipment. 

When the slabs leave the saw they are conveyed by revolv- 
ing rolls to the "slasher"; in this machine they are cut into 
lengths, usually of four feet, conveyed to the lath machine, 
sawed up into laths, and bound into bundles. All short pieces 
are sorted by hand, and some go to the shingle machine, 
while the rest are converted into stove wood. The sawdust 
and fine refuse help feed the furnaces of the mill, and the 
coarse stuff that cannot be used, even for fuel, is burned to 
get it out of the way. 

291. Milling. — The processes of the sawmill are followed 
by those of the finishing mill, in which the rough-sawed lum- 
ber is planed to a smooth surface and is matched, beaded, or 
molded, to make it serviceable for floors, wainscoting, and 
inside finish. Because of the prominence of the planing 



155 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

machine in these mills, such establishments are often called 
planing mills. Planing mills may be combined with the saw- 
mills, or located at any convenient point between them and 
the centers where lumber is consumed. As finished lumber 
is lighter and less bulky than the rough-sawed, the operation 
of a finishing mill in connection with the sawmill effects a 
saving in freight when the lumber is shipped. On the other 
hand, as the planing mill usually deals with seasoned lumber, 
and as better judgment as to finishing can be exercised when 
the exact nature of the requirements is known, it is often most 
convenient to have the finishing mill at the point of consump- 
tion. It is for this reason that planing mills are located in cities 
which are far distant from sawmills. 

The machines of the finishing mill are numerous. There 
are planers which dress the rough plank to a smooth surface 
and to a uniform thickness ; matching machines which cut 
the tongue and groove on the edges of boards which are to 
be used for flooring and similar work ; molding machines for 
giving finish to the edges of planks or for producing strips of 
curved section ; saws for ripping and saws for cross-cutting, 
and a variety of other and more highly specialized machines, 
such as those for boring, paneling, and sand-papering. A full 
description of these does not fall within the purpose of this 
discussion, but such machinery is so common that most stu- 
dents can easily gain an opportunity to inspect its action. 

292. Water in Timber. — As has been explained, wood is 
composed of cells of different forms and of different functions 
with reference to the life of the tree. These contain more or less 
water, which may occur in three conditions: (1) it forms the 
greater part of the contents of the living cells ; (2) it saturates 
the walls of all cells ; and (3) it partly fills the cavities of the 
lifeless cells, fibers, and vessels. In some cases the water in 
growing timber makes more than half the weight of the wood. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 89 

Sapvvood contains more water than heartvvood ; hence there 
is more water in the upper portion of a tree trunk than in its 
lower portion, more in limbs than in trunk, and most in the 
roots. Different trees of the same kind differ in the amount 
of water they contain, thrifty trees having more than stunted 
ones, and young ones more than old, while the moisture in 
the wood of all trees varies with the season of the year. The 
popular idea that trees contain more water in summer than in 
winter, however, is not always correct, tests recently made by 
the United States Bureau of Forestry showing that the greatest 
weight of certain trees is in the winter. 

293. The Process of Seasoning consists in driving out of 
green wood, either by natural or artificial means, a consider- 
able portion of the water contained in the walls and cavities 
of its cells. Seasoning thins the walls of the cells and makes 
the wood appear more porous. The rate at which it will sea- 
son, or dry, depends upon the kind of timber, the size of the 
piece, the part of the trunk from which it is taken, and 
the character of its exposure to drying influences ; pine, for 
example, dries faster than oak, .small boards faster than large 
ones, and sapwood faster than heartwood. 

Wood newly cut from a living tree, when exposed to ordi- 
nary atmospheric conditions, gradually dries, and in so doing 
changes its weight and dimensions. Green lumber, therefore, 
is unstable with reference to these qualities and is not service- 
able for many purposes until it has been seasoned. All lumber 
designed for the manufacture of furniture, cabinetwork, and 
machinery should be thoroughly seasoned before it is used. 

The method employed in seasoning must be such that the 
timber will not only dry, but will also be preserved from injury 
during the process. Some of the harmful effects due to 
improper ways of seasoning are the formation of cracks, or 
" checking," and a loss of strength caused by injury to the 
wood structure ; these must be taken into account in deciding 



190 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



upon the method to be used. Those most common are air 
seasoning, steam seasoning, water seasoning, boiling in oil, 
and kiln-drying. 



294. Air Seasoning is the cheapest and probably the best of 
the methods mentioned, although it is slow and must be care- 
fully conducted or there will be much injury by decay and by 



3^i»;. 315 




checking. It consists in piling the lumber out of doors where 
the air may circulate freely about it. Under these conditions 
the moisture is given off and the solid constituents of the sap 
gradually harden and become incapable of further change; 
the lumber is then regarded as seasoned. Air drying demands 
the exercise of considerable care. If green lumber is piled 
without proper air spaces, it is sure to decay; while, on the 
other hand, if exposed to sun and wind, the moisture in the 
outer portions of each piece thus exposed evaporates faster 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. I9I 

than that in the inner portions, and that in the ends faster 
than that at the middle, with the result that shrinkage proceeds 
unequally and cracks are formed. Both decay and checking 
may be prevented by piling the timber properly and protect- 
ing it from the sun and rain. It should be so placed that the 
air may circulate freely, not only on all sides of the piles but 
also about each piece. Fig. 315 shows a pile of railroad ties 
as arranged for seasoning. Sawed lumber may be piled in a 
similar way, and with material of uniform dimensions the pile 
may be carried to a considerable height. The time required 
to air-dry lumber depends upon the size of the pieces, a longer 
time being allowed for large sticks than for smaller ones. 
Sometimes lumber which has been piled but a few months is 
regarded as seasoned, and for some purposes it may be safely 
used, but the drying is only partial. For complete air-dryieg 
from two to four years are required. 

295. Steam Drying is employed when it is desired to 
season boards quickly, or when it becomes necessary to soften 
wood in large pieces for the purpose of bending it, as, for 
instance, in shipbuilding and furniture making. As a season- 
ing process it is objectionable, because the high temperature 
required is likely to injure the wood structure to such an extent 
as to decrease the strength of the material. The process con- 
sists in exposing the wood to an atmosphere of steam under 
considerable pressure. The steam enters the cells of the wood 
and dissolves the sap, leaving water in its place ; when the 
water is dried out, the wood is left well seasoned. The soften- 
ing of the fibers by the steam during this process, and the 
uniform conditions of heat overcome all tendency toward 
checking, which is so likely to occur in air seasoning. The 
steaming process occupies but a few hours. 

296. Water Seasoning is accomplished by allowing the tim- 
ber to remain for a considerable time in water. Bv this means 



I92 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the sap is dissolved away and replaced by water, which evapo- 
rates rapidly when the timber is piled for drying. Timber sea- 
soned in this way usually shrinks uniformly, exhibiting but slight 
disposition to check. Logs which are designed for the spars of 
ships are invariably water-seasoned. They are usually stored 
in water, with the bark on, for many months, and are thus kept 
in a soft and workable condition until such time as they may 
be removed for finishing. 

297. Kiln Drying is a common method of artificial season- 
ing. It requires far less time than the processes already men- 
tioned, and, with the exception of air-drying, is the one to 
which most lumber is subjected. Dry-kilns are to be found in 
connection with nearly all sawmills and planing mills, and 
also with those manufacturing establishments which consume 
large quantities of wood, such as furniture and car factories. 
Air-seasoned lumber, designed for inside finish, when received 
at the sawmill is often piled for a few days in the kiln to remove 
moisture which it may have gathered from the atmosphere. 

298. Kilns, of which there are many forms, are large 
structures fitted with machinery for circulating dry, hot air 
about the lumber that is placed in them. The lumber is piled 
upon light trucks, which are run into the kiln upon lines of 
track. The doors are then closed and steam is turned into 
the coils of pipe by which the air is heated. Moisture-laden 
air escapes through a chimney and is replaced by dry air taken 
in below the pipes. In operation, the green lumber is intro- 
duced into that end of the kiln from which the moist and 
heated air is discharged, and cars containing the seasoned 
lumber are removed from the other. By this arrangement the 
cars progress through the kiln, the dryest air coming in con- 
tact with the dryest lumber, and that which is most heavily 
laden with moisture, with the greenest lumber. This course 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 93 

prevents too great rapidity in the process of seasoning. For 
seasoning green lumber, kilns require about one week for each 
one-inch thickness of material. Lumber seasoned by air-drying, 
and designed for inside work, can be made sufficiently dry to 
avoid all chance of further shrinkage, if placed in the kiln from 
forty to sixty hours for each inch in thickness. In general, more 
time is required for hard woods than for soft, and, usually, the 
former must be seasoned at lower temperatures than those which 
may be employed with the latter. In any case, the temperature 
is limited by the tendency of the wood to check ; for if the 
drying process is forced too rapidly, the lumber will be injured. 

299. Shrinkage in timber occurs whenever it loses mois- 
ture. In the process of seasoning, shrinkage may reduce the 
width and thickness of a timber fully eight per cent, but it has 
little effect on its length. Wood cannot be seasoned so well 
that it will not shrink whenever the surrounding dryness is 
increased. It also has a tendency to shrink after having its 
surface removed, as in finishing by use of a plane. This is due 
to the reopening of the pores, which in the fibers of the old 
surface had become closed by contraction ; in this way new 
passages are furnished for the escape of moisture. 

300. Swelling occurs in timber whenever it absorbs mois- 
ture. Most woods give up moisture more readily than they 
receive it ; therefore, a timber is less likely to swell when 
transferred from a dry atmosphere to a moist one than to 
shrink when the conditions are reversed. A slight variation, 
however, in the amount of surrounding moisture. is sufficient 
to produce a perceptible change in the dimensions of a piece 
of wood. Paint upon all exposed surfaces is some protection 
against such changes, but it will not serve entirely to suppress 
them. As a rule, the softer a wood is, the more readily it 
shrinks and swells. 



194 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

301. Warping in wood is a change of form resulting from 
unequal shrinkage or swelling. In Fig. 316, which represents 
the end of a log, it will be seen that, besides the lines defining 
the annual rings, there are others extending outward from the 
center in all directions ; these have already been defined as 
medullary rays. In some woods they are hardly discernible ; 
in others they distinctly mark the cross-section of the timber, 
and they are not very much shortened by shrinkage. In the 
process of seasoning, the bond between the rays and the wood 
fibers next them becomes weakened, and therefore, as shrink- 
age occurs along the circumference of the annual rings, there 
is a tendency to cleavage on lines at right angles to the rings, 

Fig. 316 Fig. 317 Fig. 318 




3 





— naturally the lines of least resistance, i.e. the medullary rays. 
If the seasoning is carefully done, no checks will appear, but 
the tendency is always apparent. For example, if a log is cut 
longitudinally into five pieces, the middle piece will, by the 
contraction of the annual rings in shrinkage, become thinner 
at the edges than at the center, as shown by Fig. 317. The 
other four pieces will warp as shown, the surface of each piece 
which in the log was nearest the center becoming the convex 
side after shrinkage. The shrinkage of a square joist will vary 
according to its position in the log relative to the heart, as 
indicated by Fig. 318. Thus it will be seen that in the cross- 
section of a timber, changes resulting from shrinkage can be 
foretold whenever the character of the end grain can be 
determined. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 95 

Timbers also warp in the direction of their length. When 
not due to the subjection of one part to dryness or dampness, 
to the exclusion of other parts, this can be traced to uneven- 
ness in the grain, which exposes a greater number of fiber 
ends in one part of a surface than in another. The more fiber 
ends there are on a surface, the more readily moisture will 
pass into or out of the wood, and the more pronounced 
will be the local shrinkage or swelling, and consequent warp- 
ing. For example, suppose Fig. 319 to represent the edge of 
a board having the grain as 

. . Fig. 319 

shown. Moisture will escape B A 

most readily from the surfaces r — - - - - —^-^-^-^= . __ _'_ __ . _ ^» 

marked A and A'. The con- — ^ — ^"" "" "^ ~~ — z'--—~~ - 

A B 

traction of the surfaces A and 

A' will force the board into the shape shown by the dotted 
line. The most fruitful cause of warping, however, is unequal 
exposure. One side of a board may be exposed to the sun 
while the other is not ; the side exposed will be found concave 
both in length and breadth. Heat from a stove or dampness 
from the ground are common causes of warping. If a board 
newly planed on all its faces is left flat on the bench, it will 
after a time be found concave in its upper surface, — a result 
due to the greater exposure of the upper surface as compared 
with the lower, which remained in contact with the bench. 
A piece which has reasonably straight grain, and which has 
been planed all over, should be left on its edge or end. 
Pieces of irregular form, that are required to be made into 
shape accurately, are best prepared when roughly cut nearly to 
the required dimensions, and allowed ample time to shrink and 
warp before being finished exactly to size. 

302. Decay in Wood is caused by the growth upon it of 
fungi, which send down little food-seeking threads in all direc- 
tions into the wood, consuming the cell walls and their contents, 



I96 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

and thus producing a disintegration and change of structure 
which is called rot, or decay. In order to grow, the fungi 
must have air, organic food materials, heat, and abundance of 
moisture ; the moisture must not amount to immersion, how- 
ever., for too much water excludes the air and the fungi cannot 
live for want of oxygen. Fungus growth is checked by cold and 
killed by temperatures above 150 F., as well as by the applica- 
tion of certain chemicals to the wood. Perfectly seasoned 
wood is not likely to rot, especially if it has good ventilation 
and its surfaces of contact are well protected. 

303. Timber Preservation is effected by filling the pores 
with some fluid which destroys and prevents fungus growth, and 
thus protects the wood from decay. Some woods, such as oak, 
resist the attacks of fungi, and therefore do not rot quickly even 
under unfavorable conditions. For this reason, only woods of this 
kind were formerly used in work which was exposed to moisture, 
as railway ties, bridge timbers, and fence posts. Of late, how- 
ever, such timber has become very scarce and costly, and much 
attention is now given to artificial methods of preservation which 
will give durability to cheaper and otherwise inferior timber. 

By " inferior timber " is meant those soft, porous woods 
which are especially liable to decay. By treating with a pre- 
servative, however, they are rendered durable, and red oak may 
thus be made to take the place of white oak, and loblolly pine, 
fir, and hemlock may be used for pine in places where resist- 
ance to decay is the chief requirement. The preservative treat- 
ment never increases the strength of a timber or its resistance 
to abrasion, but, on the contrary, slightly weakens it ; for many 
purposes, however, the ultimate strength of timber is of far less 
importance than its durability. The requisite property of the 
preserving fluid is that it will destroy and prevent the growth 
of fungi, and for this purpose corrosive sublimate, tar oil, creo- 
sote, and zinc chloral are most used. 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 97 

The manner of applying the fluid depends upon the quantity 
of wood to be treated. If the quantity is small, the preserva- 
tive may be applied vvfth a brush, or the wood may be dipped 
into it. If large quantities of lumber are to be treated, exten- 
sive plants are equipped for doing the work. The purpose in 
all cases is to fill the pores of the wood with the fluid. As a 
first step, the wood must be thoroughly seasoned in order that 
its porosity and permeability may be as high as possible. If 
the wood is absolutely dry, it will take up considerable quanti- 
ties of the preservative, though a high degree of penetration 
is not often secured without the use of pressure. A typical 
process is described in the next paragraph. 

304. Creosoting. — The apparatus employed consists of one 
or more heavy metallic cylinders having end doors which open 
to the full size of the cross-section of the cylinder, and which 
are made to close steam-tight. A track extends through the 
cylinder, upon which runs a truck or car carrying the material 
to be treated. Pumps and other accessory apparatus are in 
pipe connection with the cylinder. 

The timber to be treated is loaded on a truck and run into 
the cylinder, after which the doors are securely closed. Steam 
under considerable pressure is then admitted to the cylinder, 
and this heats the timber and supplies moisture to fill the 
pores of the wood and pressure to force it in, thus augmenting 
its porosity. This accomplished, the steam is shut off and a 
vacuum pump is employed to reduce the pressure within the 
cylinder to as low a point as possible, with the result that the 
moisture forced into the wood, having served its purpose in 
opening the pores, is now drawn out. The liquid creosote is 
then introduced into the cylinder and under an increase of 
pressure the timber expands and the liquid penetrates far 
beyond the surface of the material. Pieces which are not more 
than eight or ten inches across are penetrated to their center. 



I98 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

After the pressure is withdrawn, the surplus liquid is drawn off, 
the doors are opened, and the wood is removed. The process 
as described is subject to several modifications. 

It is usually unnecessary to treat wood which is designed 
for the interior of buildings, the process being chiefly valuable 
for such materials as come in contact with the ground or are 
used about the water. 



STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 

305. The Strength of Timber is measured by its resistance 
to yielding under the influence of external force applied in 
any form. Timbers may be so located with reference to the 
load they sustain as to be strained in tension, or in compres- 
sion, or in shear, or by bending ; and in each case the maxi- 
mum resistance which can be offered by a piece of wood will 
have a different value. The maximum resistance also depends 
upon the direction of the grain relative to the direction in 
which the load is applied. In general, knotty and cross-grained 
wood is not so strong as clear and straight-grained pieces of 
the same material. Large timbers usually contain more imper- 
fections in grain than small ones which might be cut from the 
larger bulk, and, hence, large timbers are likely to be relatively 
weaker than small ones. In general, the heavier woods are 
the stronger. 

306. Strength in Tension is measured by the resistance 
which is offered to a force drawing in the direction of length. 
In a piece of wood, this is the sum of the resistances of all the 
separate fibers making up the cross-section. Long-leaved, yel- 
low pine and Washington fir will withstand about 12,000 
pounds for each square inch of cross-section, while oak, Cana- 
dian white pine, and red fir withstand about 10,000 pounds, 
and the more common woods, such as white pine, Norway 



TIMBER AND ITS PREPARATION. 1 99 

pine, spruce, hemlock, cypress, and chestnut, from 6000 to 
9000 pounds. These values are remarkably large when one 
considers the lightness of the materials involved. 

307. Strength in Compression is the resistance offered to 
a force which tends to reduce the dimension of a material 
in the direction in which the force is applied. Columns which 
stand upon a foundation or base of any sort, and bear a load 
upon the top, are in compression. In this case the individual 
fibers act as so many hollow columns firmly bound together. 
Failure under compression occurs when the fibers, by sepa- 
rating into small bodies and sliding over each other, cease to 
act as a solid mass. This action is obviously assisted by the 
presence of the smallest knot or the slightest irregularity in 
grain. When tested in the form of short columns in which the 
grain runs lengthwise, the common woods withstand loads in 
compression of from 5000 to 8000 pounds per square inch of 
cross-section. 

308. Strength in Shear. — A pin which holds a tenon in 
its mortise (Fig. 191) must resist shear when a force is applied 
to draw the tenon out of the mortise. Similarly, that portion 
of the tenon which is immediately beyond the pin is, under 
the condition stated, in shear. The shear upon the pin is 
across the grain, while that upon the tenon is with the grain. 
Again, in the case cited, the pin is said to be in double shear, 
since in giving way it would need to yield at two points in 
its length, while the tenon is in single shear. The resistance 
of wood to shear is much less than that to tension or com- 
pression. Assuming the stress to fall on a piece one square 
inch in section, the resistance to shear is greatest in white 
oak, for which the value across the grain is 2000 pounds and 
with the grain about 800 pounds. In other woods the resist- 
ance to shear across the grain is from 600 to 1400 pounds, 
and with the grain from 350 to 600 pounds. 



200 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

309. Strength under Transverse Loads is shown by resist- 
ance to forces which tend to bend the piece. Closely allied 
to the question of strength under the conditions stated, is that 
of stiffness, which is often quite as important as that of strength. 
A green stick is only about two-thirds as stiff as one that is 
dry. Heavy pine is stiffer than light pine. Wood from the 
butt of a tree is usually stiffer than that from the upper part 
of the trunk. In all full-grown pine trees the heartwood is 
stiffer than the sapwood, but in young pines, and also in 
young, second-growth hard woods, the sapwood is stiffer. It 
is the sapwood of second-growth hickory that is prized for 
carriage spokes and tool handles. The load which can be with- 
stood by a timber subjected to a bending force varies directly 
as its width, as the square of its depth, and inversely as the 
length of the span. For example, a timber 5 inches deep 
and 4 inches wide is twice as strong as one which is 5 inches 
deep and 2 inches wide ; while one which is 2 inches wide and 
10 inches deep is four times as strong as one which is 2 inches 
wide and 5 inches deep. Again, a timber which rests on sup- 
ports 16 feet apart will carry but half the load which may be 
sustained by a similar timber which rests on supports 8 feet 
apart. A consideration of numerical values is difficult unless 
aided by mathematical preparation. Students who are inter- 
ested should seek to master the theory of beams as presented 
in texts dealing with the strength of materials. 



OCT 24 1905 



